History of Science Fall 2006

Peter Abelard

2006-12-12T07:26:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard can be considered a great scientist even though he was himself not a scientist in the more current sense. He was one of the greatest medieval thinkers where he was big believer in reason. This kind of thought is the basis for real science as we know it today. He also supported schools and was a big player in the creation of schools, where his style of reason was taught.

Sorry this is so late and so full of useless information.

Astronomy and Astrology

2006-12-11T23:48:00.000-05:00

Astronomical knowledge during the middle ages came from the translations of Greek and Arabic texts by Islamic scholars. After being introduced to the astrolabe by these scholars, Western astronomers became to shift their focus to quantitative studies. Though some data was collected by western scholars themselves, the bulk came from the works mentioned above. By the 13^th century, many texts had been translated to Latin and were being spread through the universities. Johannes de Sacrobosco’s The Sphere, written at Paris, would be an introductory astronomy text. He described planetary motion through the system of epicycles first explored by the ancient Greeks. Students were taught the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. However, there were philosophical problems between Ptolemy and Aristotle. Aristotle explained planetary motion through concentric spheres; this could not be matched mathematically, or otherwise, with Ptolemy’s epicycles. Due to the need for quantitative accuracy, Ptolemy would be favored by most.

Like astronomy, astrology was a common scholarly field in the middle ages. Philosophical and theological beliefs justified the study of how the heavens influenced the earth. Though astrology was condemned by Augustine and other Christian scholars early on, the Greek and Arabic texts that were brought during the middle ages made astrology popular again. Aristotle’s metaphysics would dominate astrology. This was in distinct contrast with the rejection of Aristotle in favor of Ptolemy in the realm of quantitative astronomy. Both subjects though complimented each other. While astronomy would effectively produce a schedule of events, astrology explained why that schedule held weight.

Fleabane (Pennyroyal) – (Assignment 3)

2006-12-11T11:08:00.000-05:00

Fleabane was first used as a flea repellant if it was rubbed right on the skin. It was also recommended as a cough remedy and a digestive aid when taken with honey. It also was used to remedy cough, upset stomach, flatulence, anxiety, and menstruation promotion. These flowers are found in temperate and mountainous areas North America and Europe.

http://www.ct-botanical-society.org/galleries/pics_e/erigeronphil.jpg

http://www.ct-botanical-society.org/galleries/pics_e/erigeronphil_w.jpg

Protagoras (Assignment 2)

2006-12-11T10:45:00.000-05:00

Protagoras was a philosopher who loved from 490 - 420 BCE. He was a highly paid teacher on virtue and political life, and gave specified training in rhetoric and public speaking.

One of Protagoras greatest impact on history was his influence on Plato. Protagoras influenced Plato’s search for knowledge in moral judgment. In one of Plato’s dialogues called Protagoras, he credits him with inventing the role of the teacher of virtue. Protagoras was one of the earth Greek philosophers who shifted from natural philosophy to human philosophy.

http://www.crystalinks.com/protagoras.jpg

http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/protagor.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagoras

assignment 3

2006-12-10T23:02:00.000-05:00

Borage or Borago officinalis

This herb was claimed to be the best of mood enhancers by Pliny, Dioscorides, and John Evelyn. It was naturally cultivated for the kitchen, used to flavor wines and teas. Preparations made from the seeds oil were thought to relieve respiratory inflammations. Most preperations to "improve" the mood were given in tea or wine. One could call it the earliest of anti-depressents! It was also used as a diruretic and emmolient, for fevers, and heart problems.

An image of the plant: http://www.botanical.com/botanica/mgmh/b/borage66.html

h.novak

A very late blog im sorry (Assignment 3)

2006-12-10T15:41:00.000-05:00

This is the herb blog from the week that i ended up in the emergency room for my leg. I've been swamped, sorry this is so late Dr. Ruane.

German Chamomile (Matricaria recutierbta)

We all know of Chamomile tea as the soothing tea to drink before we go to bed, but it has long be a remedy for multiple things. This specific type of chamomile, is as the name implies, is found in Germany, and has been found in that area for quite sometime. However it grows all over Europe, and parts of Asia, in temperatures that can sustain the plant. In the ancient times it was used as a treatment for sore stomachs, which it can still be used for today. There are biochemical aspects that aid in treating an upset stomach, however it will not treat acid reflux disease. In ancient times it was ground up into a powder and then ingested. Modern practice is the all known tea. It also serves as a mild anti-inflammatory. And another known ancient use for the herb was the mild sedative traits that the herb shows, mostly used as a sleep aid. This is also the most well known use for the herb today.

In parts of Eastern Europe the herb has even been used for so long its woven its self into the folklore. In Slovakia a folk saying says thats people should bow to the chamomile plant due to its hundreds of years of experience.

An image of the plant in bloom, and not in bloom go here:
http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/weeds/plants/ger_chamomile.htm

References:
http://www.stevenfoster.com/education/monograph/chamomile.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Chamomile

Grades for the Team Project and Blog Assignments

2006-12-07T19:33:00.000-05:00

It is taking me a little longer to process all of the paperwork and to review all of the blog assignments (including the late ones). I will have final sets of grades out to each of you by the end of the weekend, Monday morning at the latest. Please bear with me in this complicated process. So far, no team received lower than an 80 for the Team Project success. All team project grades are based on two scores, averaged together: team project success and individual contributions. However, a few individuals from specific teams may have received a lower grade due to participation issues. The lowest grade for individual participation so far is 70.

Regarding the blog assignments, the vast majority of you are working on A or B grades so far. Late assignments, obviously less complete blog entries, non existant assignments, all contribute to some students having grades below the average. There are a few people with significantly lower grades on the blog assignment due to missing entries or numerous/excessive late entries.

Final Review Sheet

2006-12-07T19:16:00.000-05:00

The final exam is on Tuesday morning at 8 am, in our normal classroom. You will have two hours to complete the exam. Please expect to be there for at least 90 minutes or so (that should give you an idea of how much I expect for answers). To help you in writing your answers, each student is allowed to bring a single 4"x6" notecard (it must be a notecard, not paper), with handwritten notes only. The notecard, if you decide to use one, must be turned in with your final.

Part One: You will have to answer one of the following questions from this list for the final.

1) Discuss the overall importance of Islamic translations and commentaries to the development of Western science and philosophy. In the course of your essay, provide at least 5 examples and discuss their specific importance or contributions in detail.

2) Discuss medieval contributions to the following fields of scientific inquiry:
natural philosophy, terrestial physics and optics. Use material from the assigned readings to support your answer.

3) Discuss the role of the Roman Catholic Church in promoting or hampering scientific inquiry. How and why did the church act the way it did from the 12th through the 15th centuries? Provide several examples of the RCC's behaviour and the justifications provided for their actions.

Part Two: Everyone will have to answer the following question.

A) Discuss the development of medical education and professional medical training during the High Middle Ages (1100-1300) and the Late Middle Ages (1300-1450). How successful were the changes undertaken in modernizing medical knowledge and training? In the course of your answer, discuss how a medieval physician would treat a patient who came to see them, suffering from 1) a non-surgical complaint, and 2) a complaint requiring surgical treatment.

Astronomy and Astrology

2006-12-06T20:08:00.001-05:00

Astronomical knowledge was in hot debate throughout the 13th and then into the 14th century. The main ideas were developed from Plato and Aristotle's writings as well as Islamic texts and work by Robert Grosseteste. Probably the biggest issue of this time period was the conflict between scholars of science and theologians. The pivotal point between the 13th and 14th century for the science of astronomy was the condemnation of 1277. There was a constant struggle to find philosophically and scientifically correct answers while preventing contradicting the church and prior beliefs. This atmosphere was a big influence on the type of writings that were produced during these times. Another influence on this compromise was Francis Bacon who wrote following the idea that science was useful only to the point that it was useful to religion. Another figure during the 13th century was Thomas Aquinas who's works were designed to push philosophy to harmonize with religion.
The scientific theories of astronomy were based on Aristotelian philosophy that there was a beginning of time and that there were distinct regions of the cosmic sphere. There was also no material outside the cosmos, a theory that was challenged after the 1277 condemnations. Another opinion was that the heavens were filled with aether ad there were Unmoved Movers that rotated with uniform circular motion. There were also calculations for the distance from the earth to the moon. The terrestrial region was made up of the 4 elements, fire and air that ascend and water and earth that descend. There were also theories on comets, shooting stars and rainbows. There was a strong tie of astronomy and mathematics and instrumentalism. During the middle ages astronomy and cosmology were considered separate fields but they were in the same “methodological continuum”(Lindberg). The differences were in the history of development. Islamic development of astronomy was still powering on through the conflict of the Christian west. Instruments were being built such as the astrolabe and the Maragha Observatory. Scholars such as Ibn Rushd had challenged Ptolomy's theories favoring concentric spheres of Aristotle. Also astronomy was a large part of Chinese scientific history during this time. A large influence on Western astronomy of the middle ages was the translation of Greek and Islamic text. Then came the western books like The Sphere by Johannes de Sacrobosco
http://www.esotericarchives.com/solomon/sphere.htm
Teaching tools were also created for students of astronomy. The most popular was the Toledan Tables later becoming the Alfonsine tables.
http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/d-mathematics/images/math18.jpg
Astrology or the idea that the heavens and the earth were physically connected leading to predictions was as much a science as anything else in the middle ages. The physical observations and the discoveries of astronomy lead to this being an important field to both religion and medicine. The magnetic influence was demonstrated by the invention of the compass in the late 13th century. Ptolomy was a great influence on astrology and wrote the handbook Tetrabiblos. The threat of astrology to Christians and Muslims was the idea of determinism. If the connections and movements of the earth and the cosmos determined or influenced the life of people then it removed the power of God over the universe. Humans needed free will and responsibility in order for the church to hold them accountable and with fatalism and determinism of cosmology that was being threatened. The compromise at the end of the 12th century was that the astrologers didn't worship the stars and the planets but their creator and the power the creator had given them. The 13th century led to a firmer rooting of astrology in the scientific world and a vital part of the study and practice of medicine. Astrology was attacked again along with astronomy during the condemnations of 1277.
After the condemnations of 1277 during the middle of the 14th century there was still the awareness of the threat of censure by the church. It influenced the development of science and what scientists were willing to say. Aristotle was back and a required part of the university curriculum. The idea of separation of science and theology was playing in the minds of scholars such as John Duns Scotus and William of Ockham. Faith was to be accepted by faith rather than philosophical proof. Another issue was the theme of divine omnipotence. God can alter the universe so there is no absolute scientific truth. These debates and ideas led to the development of modern science through observation. Though there were many conflicts and disagreements during these centuries there was also a place for development and change.

Astronomy and Astrology

2006-12-06T20:08:00.000-05:00

First astronomical knowledge was in hot debate throughout the 13th and then into the 14th century. The main ideas were developed from Plato and Aristotle's writings as well as Islamic texts and work by Robert Grosseteste. Probably the biggest issue of this time period was the conflict between scholars of science and theologians. The pivotal point between the 13th and 14th century for the science of astronomy was the condemnation of 1277. There was a constant struggle to find philosophically and scientifically correct answers while preventing contradicting the church and prior beliefs. This atmosphere was a big influence on the type of writings that were produced during these times. Another influence on this compromise was Francis Bacon who wrote following the idea that science was useful only to the point that it was useful to religion. Another figure during the 13th century was Thomas Aquinas who's works were designed to push philosophy to harmonize with religion.
The scientific theories of astronomy were based on Aristotelian philosophy that there was a beginning of time and that there were distinct regions of the cosmic sphere. There was also no material outside the cosmos, a theory that was challenged after the 1277 condemnations. Another opinion was that the heavens were filled with aether ad there were Unmoved Movers that rotated with uniform circular motion. There were also calculations for the distance from the earth to the moon. The terrestrial region was made up of the 4 elements, fire and air that ascend and water and earth that descend. There were also theories on comets, shooting stars and rainbows. There was a strong tie of astronomy and mathematics and instrumentalism. During the middle ages astronomy and cosmology were considered separate fields but they were in the same “methodological continuum”(Lindberg). The differences were in the history of development. Islamic development of astronomy was still powering on through the conflict of the Christian west. Instruments were being built such as the astrolabe and the Maragha Observatory. Scholars such as Ibn Rushd had challenged Ptolomy's theories favoring concentric spheres of Aristotle. Also astronomy was a large part of Chinese scientific history during this time. A large influence on Western astronomy of the middle ages was the translation of Greek and Islamic text. Then came the western books like The Sphere by Johannes de Sacrobosco
http://www.esotericarchives.com/solomon/sphere.htm
Teaching tools were also created for students of astronomy. The most popular was the Toledan Tables later becoming the Alfonsine tables.
http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/d-mathematics/images/math18.jpg
Astrology or the idea that the heavens and the earth were physically connected leading to predictions was as much a science as anything else in the middle ages. The physical observations and the discoveries of astronomy lead to this being an important field to both religion and medicine. The magnetic influence was demonstrated by the invention of the compass in the late 13th century. Ptolomy was a great influence on astrology and wrote the handbook Tetrabiblos. The threat of astrology to Christians and Muslims was the idea of determinism. If the connections and movements of the earth and the cosmos determined or influenced the life of people then it removed the power of God over the universe. Humans needed free will and responsibility in order for the church to hold them accountable and with fatalism and determinism of cosmology that was being threatened. The compromise at the end of the 12th century was that the astrologers didn't worship the stars and the planets but their creator and the power the creator had given them. The 13th century led to a firmer rooting of astrology in the scientific world and a vital part of the study and practice of medicine. Astrology was attacked again along with astronomy during the condemnations of 1277.
After the condemnations of 1277 during the middle of the 14th century there was still the awareness of the threat of censure by the church. It influenced the development of science and what scientists were willing to say. Aristotle was back and a required part of the university curriculum. The idea of separation of science and theology was playing in the minds of scholars such as John Duns Scotus and William of Ockham. Faith was to be accepted by faith rather than philosophical proof. Another issue was the theme of divine omnipotence. God can alter the universe so there is no absolute scientific truth. These debates and ideas led to the development of modern science through observation. Though there were many conflicts and disagreements during these centuries there was also a place for development and change.

Deathmatch: Astronomy vs. Astrology

2006-12-05T14:37:00.000-05:00

Today it is widely recognized that astrology and astronomy are two entirely different fields, where one explores the universe around us and the other is useful if you want to find out if today you might have luck in love or business or cards or the lottery. Astrology is generally regarded as a bogus hocus pocus, but it was not always so. At one point astronomy and astrology were one and the same, and the terms could even be used interchangeably.
The shift from the realm of the mystical to the realm of the physical came about largely through the use of what would eventually become known as the scientific method. Humans have always looked upwards, finding patterns in the stars and using their regular movement to determine important things for an early agrarian society, like the seasons. However in the medieval times, calendars had been around for centuries and population centers were far more complex than the simple farmers of old, but people still tended to hold to the belief that celestial bodies influenced everything around them. The "science" of astrology, though it was almost universally revered in Europe, made general claims about how the world should move in order to optimize its interaction with the heavenly bodies. Astrologers were even hired as Royal consultants. They uses the scientific knowledge of the day to reinforce their point, much like the Young Earth Creationists of the modern age. However both science and astrology had an inaccurate picture of the universe, hanging tightly to the geocentric model of Ptolemy. It is in the focus of the two that the divide begins to arise. Astronomy began to look to the heavens to determine accurately how they moved, and eventually attempted to describe why they moved in such a manner. Astrology on the other hand kept its eyes down, focusing on how the heavenly bodies influenced event on earth. Planets governed the health and fortune of individual humans, to the point where they might even be viewed as divine interactions with the human race, at which point astrology becomes spiritualistic or a philosophy. This divide is subtle in the 13th and 14th centuries because science had not developed into its own discipline, the scientific method had not been formally established, and the basis of accurate scientific knowledge of the heavens did not exist. Eventually science would show that the heavenly bodies do influence life from a distance through both gravitation and electromagnetic radiation, but those effects still do not include affecting a person's love life.
Astronomy and astrology would eventually develop an irreconcilable chasm that shunned astrologers as heretics and kooks, and made many astronomers doubt the existence of the ancient notion of God, but in the medieval times they were bound together by a constrained worldview.

http://www.billyandcharlie.com/planets/astronomy.html
http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm

Common Fig (assignment 3)

2006-12-05T14:25:00.000-05:00

The common fig was used historically as a laxative, as well as to treat burns, sprains and boils. If the fig is roasted then split in two the soft interior may be used to treat gumboils, dental abscesses and boils. The milk from a freshly broken stalk of the fig is useful in treating warts. This milk has also been used in some country to raise bilisters. The use of the fig goes back thousands of years, and is even mentioned in the Bible as a cure for boils.

References

http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/f/figcom12.html
http://www.quantal.demon.co.uk/saga/ooc/herbs.html#herblist

Pictures

2006-12-04T10:55:00.000-05:00

Hey all, here's a link to some pictures and videos I took today. Enjoy.

http://s117.photobucket.com/albums/o56/mlucido87/

Catapult Competition

2006-12-04T09:03:00.000-05:00

We are still on despite the horrible weather. I will be at Southgate field from about 9:30ish until the class is over.

Review sheets will be posted by Wednesday.

Astronomy and Astrology

2006-12-01T01:36:00.000-05:00

After the fall of Rome, the Europe came into a stagnant point regarding many sciences. The emergence of Astrology became much more prominent than that of Astronomy due to its popularity among the people and its constant association with medicine as well as daily tasks. Astronomy wasn’t as pursued due to a lack of mathematical inquisition and learning as well as the lack of appropriate technology.

Astronomy

The lack of knowledge, especially written knowledge, Europe suffered was the primary cause of the slow advances in Astronomy. Most astronomical knowledge from the classical era was not available, with the exception of a few simplified summaries. In contrast, translations and further observations flourished in the Arab world. Around 1100, Europe finally started to see an influx of the study of nature. Astronomy became one of the liberal arts, which made it a core course at many universities. The most common model used throughout the 12^th and 13^th century was the geocentric model. Only later in the 14^th century, did Nicole Oresme argue that “God hath established the world which shall not be moved” (Wikipedia.com, Astronomy).

Translations from Arabic to Latin were made by scholars such as Adelard of Bath (1126). His translation of the Toledan Tables, which was compiled by al-Zarqali during the 11^th century, provided treasuries of quantitative astronomical information. This type of information was key to the study of Astronomy. The Toledan Tables contained information from earlier times; thus, they were updated by Raymond of Marseilles and Robert of Chester, which marks the beginning of true Western mathematical astronomy. Astronomical instruments were developed such as the “new quadrant” of Profatius Judaeus. It was used for measuring altitudes (Lindberg, pg 269). Books were needed for use in Universities since Astronomy was a key subject, the most popular being The Sphere by Johannes de Sacrobosco. His text contained elementary aspects of astronomy along with some information on planetary motion.

Astrology

Prior to the 12^th century, the attitude towards astrology was of condemnation. The translation of astrological treatises from Greek and Arabic had a huge impact in changing this attitude. Important translated works include Ptolemy’s Tetrabiblos and Albumasar’s Introduction to the Science of Astrology. Both works tried to explain the science of astrology and how it influenced several aspects of human life. This led to a somewhat adoption of Aristotle’s metaphysics of matter, form, and substance. Translations of Aristotle’s actual work intensified his acceptance in this subject.

Astrology in the 13th and 14th centuries was a science, and one that was taught in schools and universities. It played a large role in medicine at that time as well, for both diagnosis and treatment, and it was even accepted by the Church. Astrology was used for theological reasons down to interpreting what the God's purpose for man on Earth was. It provided signs for why things were the way they were. The signs could be used to predict the future, or to tell when the best day to build a house or give birth was. Michael Scot was one of the premiere astrologers of the 13^th century, and said that astrological signs could be used to discover the truth in everything. He argued that the heavenly bodies physically affected every living thing in existence. Much credit to the spread of Astrology should be given to Aristotle, who provided his written works in a language all scholars could read at the beginning of the 13th century in Western Europe. One of the most important books in the 13th century was produced by Guido Bonatti. Bonatti's book listed questions that astrology could answer, and made it appeal to clergymen at the time, helping further the acceptance of astrology in the Church.

However, as we continue deeper into the 13^th century, many aspects of Astrology began to conflict with the Church, which led to the condemnation of 1277 and even the hunt of Astrologers by the Inquisition. Cecco d’Ascoli is known as the only astrologer to be burned by the Inquisition.

The major difference between Astronomy and Astrology was that astronomy was considered a mathematical art, a member of the mathematical quadrivium (Lindberg, pg 268). The only problem associated with this was that the mathematical knowledge available during the Middle Ages was sub-par.

One of the major issues of the time was how to bring Ptolemy’s teachings on astronomy into harmony with Aristotle’s teachings on cosmology as well as not to disagree or contest the church. It was mentioned in the Astrology section how this was managed. Astronomy didn’t seem to conflict with the church since all it was was mathematical observations and extensive book keeping. Obviously, Astronomers favored Ptolemy while Astrologists followed Aristotle.

Image of Astronomy/Astrology instrument:

Astrolabe - Used for navigation, used by both Astronomers and Astrologers

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c9/Astrolab.JPG

Sources:

Lindberg, David C. The beginnings of Western Science. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1992

http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy#Middle_Ages_and_Islamic_astronomy

Astronomy and Astrology in the late Middle Age

2006-11-29T21:50:00.000-05:00

Today, when one thinks of astronomy, planetariums, elaborate star maps, and gigantic telescopes come to mind. When one thinks of astrology, on the other hand, Sunday morning newspaper horoscopes and the signs of the Zodiac come to mind. Why is it that astrology is in magazines and newspapers while astronomy is in scientific journals? Do not both of these studies involve the stars, the planets, and their positions in space? To grasp a more full understanding, it may be necessary to look back to the high Middle Age of the 13th and 14th centuries when there was much ado about these practices.

Astronomy, long considered a science, has been an object of study since the ancient times of the West. However, during a Dark Age, many of the works, measurements, and theories had been forgotten. Luckily, the Islamic world preserved much of what there was concerning the cosmos. By the 1200s, this knowledge was coming back to the West through translation and a renewed interest in astronomy. The works of Ptolemy were debated and the theories held by Aristotle were refined to fit the needs of the time. As always, this was a science of mathematics and physics.

Of course the system they created was geocentric, as had long been the popular belief. There were two main spheres, as Aristotle had proposed: the terrestrial and the celestial. The terrestrial sphere was the earth and its atmosphere. The other, of more importance to the astronomer, was the celestial sphere. The celestial sphere that came out of the late Middle Age had ten, some would say eleven, thick concentric spheres (the perfect shape because God made the heavens perfect), one for each of the seven planets (the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn — generally thought to be in that order), a firmament which held the stars (some thought the stars were separate), a crystalline or aqueous heaven, and the empyreum, which housed the angels. From the earth, measurements of orbits and locations of celestial bodies were taken by a vast majority of useful tools, including the astrolabe, the torquetum, and the armillary sphere.

Armillary Sphere: http://www.humboldt.edu/~rap1/EarlySciInstSite/Instruments/ArmSphere/ESI.ArmilSphr.jpg
Torquetum: http://www.humboldt.edu/~rap1/EarlySciInstSite/Instruments/Torquetum/Turq_Ecl.jpg
Astrolabe: http://www.physics.ncsu.edu/courses/astron/astrolabe.gif

Not completely unlike astronomy was astrology. The study of astrology was likewise rooted in the celestial sphere and was concerned with the location of the heavens and the heavenly or celestial bodies. However, unlike astronomists, astrologists used the information of the stars and planets to make worldly predictions. As far as they were concerned, since the celestial bodies had influence on tides, minerals, and the seasons, they were physically connected to the terrestrial sphere. Since the celestial sphere had influence on other such worldly things, it would be understandable to believe they also have a causal effect on the lives of humans. Through this reasoning, astrology grabbed a foothold in many aspects of daily life, most notably in medicine.

http://www.internationalastrologers.com/anatomical_body_Astrology.jpg

The astrologists used the work of the astonomists to make predictions that couldn't be proven by any means. Astrology became taboo, as it may be viewed today. Despite the underlying and clear connection between these two lines of study in the heavens and the stars and planets, the ends to which each art wishes to come are vastly different. While astronomists wish to understand the physics of non-terrestrial substance, astrologists wish to use non-terrestrial substance to explain and predict terrestrial matters.

2006-11-29T16:52:00.000-05:00

From the beginning of life to our unforeseen end all human beings will have something in common; we will have all looked up into the sky. Some of us will do more than look up in the sky. Their curiosity to look up into the stars will lead some to observer, collect data, and investigate the phenomenon we see in the sky. It has already become a profession to many. Some believed that the stars seen in the sky have a correlation to our lives so therefore use their collected data to cast predictions about the future. Others just look at the sky and study the phenomenon occurring beyond the Earth’s atmosphere. From our curiosity looking above two fields of knowledge are born, the practice of Astrology and the science of Astronomy. These are two very significant fields of knowledge because both still mystify us. It is a shame that for many of us today the distinction isn’t clear, the two fields have been mashed up into single practice for many people and cultures. The source of confusion leads us back the 14^th century on Europe when scientists first started unraveling the mechanics of our universe.

The origins of astrology are dated back to the era of the ancient Babylonians in the middle of 2^nd millennium BC. Since then Astrologers have been studying celestial bodies to aid the understanding how men should live their lives and help expand knowledge about our personalities, social affairs, and other events. This practice was predominant until the Renaissance. Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences however most innovations did not come until the invention of the telescope. Astronomy was recognized as independent to Astrology by the Greeks however most astronomy teachings were passed down as part of astrology. Then the scientific revolution occurred, and the distinction between Astronomy and Astrology were becoming clear. Scientist like Nicolaus Copernicus who proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system and Galileo Galilei who defended Copernicus through his invention of the telescopes made great breakthroughs in the field of Astronomy. The field was further bolstered by Newtonian physics which was able to quantify the motion of the celestial bodies. Thus at the birth of the scientific method Astronomy became more distinguishable from Astrology.

http://casswww.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/History.html

http://www.nickcampion.com/nc/history/history.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy

Late, but still great

2006-11-29T12:18:00.000-05:00

During the 13th and 14th centuries, the relationship between astronomy and astrology was like any natural marriage between two people that hate each other but seem to have an unmistakable bond that unites them, almost like Batman and Superman. Issues cropped up throughout these centuries that first united the two studies but eventually divided them. Throughout the centuries leading up to the 13th and 14th, western relations with the Arabic world had begun to prosper and many ideas that were locked away within the Arabic language were bridging the gap into Latin and Greek. This opened up a whole new bag of tricks that the west could use to further their own study of the stars. Collaberation caused astronomy to progress while it seemed to shunt the growth of astrology. During this time, the Church had a lot of influence over nearly every faction of life in the western world. When knowledge from the Arabic world began to filter into the studies of astrologers in which knowledge of the relative positions of celestial bodies and related information is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing knowledge about personality, human affairs, and other terrestrial events, this seemed to be a direct assault on the Church's belief in determinism. It got to the point where astrologers who had been following the beliefs of Ptolemy and even to a certain degree, Aristotle, had begun to find that their knowledge, in some ways, was reinforced and mirrored by their Arabic brethren, the Church felt it was imperative to issue a condemnation on the study of astrological determinism in 1277. Astronomy, unlike astrology, was not directly smited by the Church. The observation and predictions of the motions of the naked-eye objects slowly progressed and led to the formulation of observatories. The 13th and 14th centuries marked a turning point, of sorts, in mankinds study of the heavens and the stars. Emphasis seemed to begin to sway towards astronomy rather than astrology, though both stemmed from philosophical origins, the more scientific study seemed to begin to take the lead.

astronomy and astrology

2006-11-29T07:12:00.000-05:00

According to the Merriam Webster dictionary astronomy is the study of objects and matter outside the earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties and astrology was the divination of the supposed influences of the stars and planets on human affairs and terrestrial events by their positions and aspects. In the 13^th and 14^th centuries the two studies were not so separately defined. They were both intertwined through the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic ideas. The main commonalities between the 13th and 14th centuries were the ideas of Aristotle and Ptolemy. In the 13^th century this ideas were being revisited. For example, Thomas Aquinas tried to relate these ideas to Christianity. This later turned into trying to disprove some of the ideas which created problems with the church, which later in the 14^th centuries turned into you can try to disprove the ideas of Aristotle but as long as you in the end say he was correct, but ultimately the these lines of thought help the started of the Renaissance.

Final Post!

2006-11-29T07:08:00.000-05:00

Astronomy can be defined as “the science that deals with the material universe beyond the earth's atmosphere (dictionary.com)” while Astrology can be defined as “the study that assumes and attempts to interpret the influence of the heavenly bodies on human affairs (dictionary.com).” In order for these two concepts to survive, they had to work together during the 13^th and 14^th centuries. Astronomy could be used only when a situation arises that showed the connection between the earth and heavens. Astrology was a type of philosophy rather than defined as a science. Because of that reason, people in that time of age tended to question how accurate and truthful it really was.

Astrology during the 13^th century turned to the insights of Neoplatonic and Hellenistic philosophy for background wisdom. Astrology is linked to actually “knowing something,” not just on the surface but at a deeper level. This is because of the relationship between Gods Will and how it is apparent in the world that is actually seen. A part of this whole concept was from observational data. It showed the tides connected to the moon cycle around the Earth with its “magnetic pull,” as well as the season’s connection to solar motion.

On the flip side was Astronomy. It was fastly gaining popularity throughout the 13^th and 14^th centuries. So fast, in fact, that many teachers began writing their own books. Johannes de Sacrobosco, in the _____ century wrote his book, The Sphere. This booked ended up to be one of the turning points in history because he was able to describe and predict the west-to-east motion of the sun around the ecliptic circle at the rate of precisely 1 degree per day. He also said that each of the planets (excluding the sun) is carried in the ecliptic circle.

As time progressed; however, the study of Astronomy eventually because a problem in the churches. No one could really prove how all this knew knowledge could coincide with both Ptolemy’s theory and Aristotle’s cosmology theory. These two different views tended to clash greatly with each other.

Sources

www.dictionary.com

The Beginning of Western Science

http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm

http://www.medievalastrology.co.za/background_info.htm

Astrology and Astronomy in the 13th and 14th Centuries

2006-11-29T06:54:00.000-05:00

Mankind has been observing the night sky for thousands of years. Ancient Babylonians developed Astrology and identified the 12 signs of the zodiac. This knowledge was further developed by the Greeks, then later by the Arabs who built upon the Greek system and then translated it into Latin. The Arabs were the perfectors of the Astrolabe which was invented by the Greeks. By calculating the position of the stars you could tell what direction you were going. This was used for over 1000 years in Europe and in the Arab world as the primary instrument of navigation both at sea and on land.

In the modern world Astronomy and Astrology are regarded as separate disciplines. Astronomy is accepted as a science while Astrology is regarded not as a science but as a divination or instrument of foretelling. Astronomy is defined as the study of objects and phenomena beyond the atmosphere of the earth. Astrology can be distinguished in two ways 1. a set of beliefs about physical influence within the cosmos 2. the art of casting horoscopes and determining propitious movements .In the 13th and 14th centuries the astronomer and the astrologer were one and the same and in Medieval Europe, Astronomy and Astrology were actually encompassed under the single title of Astronomia.

As astrological texts from Hellenistic and Arab astrologers were translated into Latin, Astrology became more widely accepted. The royal courts would be assisted by astrologers for advice on how to run their kingdoms; in return they would receive funds for research. Medieval astrologers believed that the sun, moon, planets, and astrological zodiac celestial bodies had influences over everything from the weather and the growth of crops to the inner workings of the human body and each person’s personality. It was common for doctors to check the positions of the stars before giving diagnosis to a patient. A zodiac man chart was used to explain complicated ideas to patients and to show how the astrological formations ruled over each part of the body.

As noted by David Lindberg, “By the end of the twelfth century, the most important astronomical texts were available in Latin. The history of Western astronomy from this point onward is a story of growing mastery an increasing dissemination of astronomical knowledge, primarily through the universities.” Some of the most common texts of the time were Ptolemy’s Almagest, Al-Farghānī’s Rudiments of Astronomy,and Johannes de Sacrobosco’s The Sphere. Another important text of the time was Theorica Planetarum which described Ptolemy’s theory of the movements of the planets. The solid sphere version of this theory was developed by Ibn al-Haytham and this was later elaborated by Roger Bacon in the 1260’s. During the 13th century astronomy was known as one of the Seven Liberal Arts in the universities. The study of the night skies, tracking of the sun, moon, the planets and the stars was used to create planetary tables. Medieval astronomy was considered to be a real science; the evolution of celestial objects was associated with mathematics for quanitive predictions and to make geometric models.

By the end of the 14th century, a very small division between astrology and astronomy began to appear, astronomy being considered more of a science and astrology was being considered more of a spiritual belief system or superstition. This rift became even larger separating the subjects almost completely through the Scientific Revolution, the Age of Enlightenment, and the Age of Reason.

Pictures
http://www.bl.uk/learning/images/bodies/large1719.html

http://www.sfusd.edu/schwww/sch618/Travelers/Transportation.html

http://www.answers.com/topic/medical-astrology

References

http://www.answers.com/topic/astrology-and-astronomy

http://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/bodies/astrology/astrologyhome.html

Lindberg, David C. “The Beginnings of Western Science”. University Chicago Press. Chicago (1992).

http://www.answers.com/topic/medical-astrology

Astronomy versus Astrology

2006-11-29T06:10:00.000-05:00

Astronomy
Astronomy was a respected mathematical field mainly because it was one of the quadriviums studied during these time periods. There was limited information known about astronomy until data was collected by the Arabs and the Toledan Tables came into use. Unfortunately the tools needed for further astronomical studies was restricted due to technological advances (or lack there of). During this time, astronomy was gaining popularity because it was moving away from being a pseudoscience. Empirical data was being gathered and mathematical calculations were providing proofs to abstract theories. Models and books like Almagest by Ptolemy were still used and studied to increase the recognition of astronomy and to make known the proofs available. A matter of fact, astronomy was gaining popularity in universities to the point where teachers were writing their own books on astronomical theories, such as the Sphere by Johannes de Sacrobosco. Here he described the west-to-east motion of the sun around the ecliptic at the rate of about 1degrees per day and the fact that each of the planets except the sun is carried around on an epicycle. Back to Ptolemy’s theoretical models was the idea that it did not agree with Aristotelian thought; a scientist looking for quantitative results had no choice but to adhere to Ptolemy’s findings. During this time astronomical scholars like Ibn al-Haytham (optics) and Roger Bacon (Aristotelian supporter) became known. Unfortunately astronomy was not that reputable as a major in universities; there were few lectures on the subject on Theorica and Almagest.

Astrology
Astrology was not the most accepted field and was somewhat snubbed by scholars as an illogical and a bunch of abstract thoughts. It discussed the relationship between the heavens and the earth. There were two major aspects to astrology. First there was astrology as a set of beliefs about physical influences within the cosmos. Secondly, there was astrology as the art of casting horoscopes, determining propitious moments and the like. However the idea of astrology as a natural philosophy was a reputable concept and was, inevitable, focused upon in the 13th and 14th century. Observational data supported the idea that the heavens were the source of light and heat. In addition, the seasons were connected to solar motion around the ecliptic. The tides were linked to lunar motion and the poles were associated with a magnetic pull.
Plato emphasized the unity of the cosmos and detected the connection between the cosmos and humans. Aristotle discussed how the cosmos were not just a source of celestial motion, but the motion and change in the sublunar realm. Stoic thought was also involved where he theorized that the cosmos were the source of unity and continuity. Like in astronomy, Ptolemy was a key figure where he composed Tetrabiblos talking about astrological prognostications cannot match the certitude of astronomical demonstration. He did, however, agree that about the existence of celestial forces and the validly of astrological prognostication. In addition, it outlined the basic beliefs of astrology and describes it was an art with its technical principles. Another point mentioned is the concepts of planetary omens and zodiacs.
Controversy did arise in astrology that clashed with the idea of determinism and the role of divinity that is associated with the stars and planets (anti-astrological). However, astrology did get a not in its incorporation of Aristotelian natural philosophy. In practice, astrology also became associated with medicine where physicians would use predictions from the planetary symbols and zodiacs to practice their techniques.

Source:
Lindberg, David C.. The Beginning of Western Science. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992.

Knowledge of astrology and astronomy

2006-11-29T05:22:00.000-05:00

Astrology and astronomy existed at the same time during history which lead to some conflict and debate but also developed with both similarities and differences during this time. Astronomy is basically the observation of the celestial bodies where as astrology is the study of celestial bodies to determine their purpose in society. The two sciences grew together and also worked together. Most of material of medieval astronomy came from the Islamic world, however, by the 13th and 14th century a change started to occur. One without the other wouldn’t have allowed all the accurate information to be revealed. Unfortunately, with all the research being done the study of astronomy eventually lead problems in the church. In the Christian church many astrologers were charlatans because the church was against the study of determinism. The study Astronomy on the other hand didn’t lead to any problems within the church or elsewhere. Astronomy and Astrology were used to solve problems and answer a lot of scientist questions but they also caused some debate over the universe and what it really looked like. A bigger debate and controversy it caused was with combing Christianity and Aristotle ideas together. This was a big problem because most of his Aristotle ideas were seemed almost one hundred percent accurate but the Christian church wouldn’t accept them. Another change that occurred in the 13th and 14th century was the fact astronomers started to use better equipment which consequently resulted in the most accurate information ever revealed. Last the two scientist were now separating from each other as oppose to working with one another. Astronomy was only used when astronomers needed to show the connection between the earths and heavens. Astrology now considered a philosophy rather then a science and people tend to question the truth of it. Astronomy and Astrology still supported one another when trying to explain the concepts of heaven and earth.

Astronomy & Astrology

2006-11-29T02:55:00.000-05:00

Astrology and astronomy existed together in history. Astrology is the study of the positions and movements of astronomical bodies such as the sun, moon, stars, and planets. It is studied in the belief that their positions and movements correspond to events and fortune on Earth. Astronomy is the study of the universe and celestial bodies. Both have developed drastically with both similarities and differences during that time period.

Both astrology and astronomy were widely practiced in Europe during the 13th and 14th centuries. Until about the 15th century, they were also viewed by many scholars to be complementary and essential to each other. It is also important to note that they were both considered to be forms of science. However, discoveries made by astronomers Copernicus and Galileo later undermined the foundations of astrology declaring it not to be a science.

In the 13th century, the interest in astronomy was increasing. Arabic translations of Ptolemy’s Almagest began filtering into western Europe. From this they made tables of planetary motions based on Ptolemy’s system. As opposed to astrology, astronomy was understood to be strongly influenced by mathematical and quantative properties. It was a primary focus in universities and was frequently studied by the students. Johannes de Sacrobosco’s The Sphere, written in the 13th century, demonstrated accurate knowledge of astronomy during that time period. He described west-to-east motion of the sun around the ecliptic at the rate of about 1 degree per day. In his textbook he also accurately discussed lunar and solar eclipses and the elliptical pattern of the planets around the sun. He made several other accurate advancements in astronomy.

During the 13th century, astrology also grew in importance and became a standard part of the medieval world view. Unlike astronomy, there was a close relationship between astrology and the practice of medicine during this time period. It became a vital influence to the successful practice of medicine. Very few people were able to deny the reality of celestial influence.

There were several issues dealing with both astronomy and astrology during the 13th and 14th centuries. Information is inevitably lost or misinterpreted during translation from one language to the next. This will have an effect on the beliefs and knowledge reflected in different geographic locations. Another serious issue during this time period dealt with the question of how to bring Ptolemaic theory into harmony with Aristotelian cosmology. Many of the beliefs of Aristotle did not agree with those of Ptolemy on the subject of astronomy. Many scholars explored theoretical claims or sought out a compromising positions.

Despite issues and differences, both astronomy and astrology played a major role during the 13th and 14th centuries, illustrating a broad knowledge in both sciences.

Astronomy/Astrology/13th-14th Centuries

2006-11-29T02:32:00.000-05:00

After the fall of the Roman Empire, most astronomical knowledge (and particularly, advances) were in the Middle East, kept alive and nurtured by Islamic scholars. Up until the 13th and 14th centuries, the only astronomical knowledge in Western Europe was knowledge that had direct impact with the church, and even that was basic. By the 13th century, one of the first catalysts to bring astronomy back into education was circulation of translated copies of Ptolemy’s Almagest. Up until and into these centuries, the idea that Earth was still the center of the universe was the accepted theory, enforced of course by the church. It isn’t until extremely late in these years that these ideas begin to be challenged.

Astrology was a lot easier to deal with as far as the church was concerned. The signs of the zodiac were one thing that the church could embrace, and that was that they were of a static nature. There were no changes in the celestial sphere, and any changes that were noticed were considered to be some sort of an “omen.” That being said, and augmented by the church’s belief that many things were never-changing or things were planned out in advance, the concept of astrology and how the signs of the celestial sphere and their locations affected the lives of people did not pose much of a conflict. Astronomy on the other hand, particularly Aristotelian ideas, conflicted with the church, and thus the reconciliation between Aristotle and Christianity needed to take place first, whereas this was not so much a problem with the concept of astrology.

Astrology was so powerful a belief in medieval times that it had influence in medicine, as noted in the meta-religion reference. This demonstrates how much of a leap astrology had over astronomy. Outside of the geocentric belief system, astronomy was not all that a big deal, since all that was necessary to be understood was explained in scripture. Also, the stress on astronomy in university education was minimal at best, contrary to how astrology was required for physicians. Astronomy at this time could not be seen as an important study due to the fact that the geocentric theory seemed to explain everything, and astrology went into the greater detail of the static nature of the heavens that may or may not have been already covered in detail by the Bible. Simply put, in the medieval ages, majority of astronomical advances and scientific thought on astronomy comes from Arabic civilizations, with few Western scholars starting to critically attack the subject on their own. This comes centuries later with Copernicus and Galileo, and they (particularly Galileo) show why astronomy is such a touchy subject in comparison to astrology.

Sources:
http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761572208&pn=2
http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm

Astronomy and astrology

2006-11-29T02:04:00.000-05:00

Astronomy is the observation or measurement of the heavens or celestial bodies and astrology is the study of celestial bodies to determine their meaning or purpose to society. In the 13th and 14th century, these two sciences were studied. Their common ground was that they both studied the skys, however they were not studying them for the same reason. The Mayan’s let astronomy play a huge part in their culture. They had pyramids and buildings that were specifically designed to line up with specific astronomical events. For example the sun would line up to specific cracks in the building for different holidays or events. They also used astrology to explain the significance of an eclipse. The Dresden Codex which is a textbook written back in the 13th century, contains charts and graphs to predict when eclipse and different events would occur. Astrology would help predict when good times may come relative to a good growing season or good fortune. Astrology conflicted a lot with religion because it tried to explain things that people believed the gods were doing before. Because of this reason, it was hard for astrology to be widely accepted and thus took awhile to grow. Astronomy and astrology are very similar thought because the study of one led to the study of the other.

http://www.planetquest.org/learn/dresden.html
http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/IGC/knowledge.htm

final post

2006-11-29T00:59:00.000-05:00

These two ideas, astronomy and astrology, go hand in hand. Astrology cant really exist without astronomy. In the 13th and 14th centuries these two concepts were used quite frequently. There were rulers that relied on astrology to tell them when to fight wars along with other information. In fact one astrologer in this time period became famous for instructing princes when to go into battle. This was Bonatti who worked under Guido de Montefeltro for a period of time; he would ring the bell to send the knights into battle.
This could, of course, only happen because astronomy paved the way. The main way that these two ideas go together is the study of the cosmos. One is mainly the study of them and the other stated that future knowledge can be found in them. These Ideas were widely believed in this time and that is why people could make a living as a astrologer in that day and age. Astrologers could tell you many things such as what rank you would end up in an army or in the church, or the simple fact of whether a child to be born was going to be a boy or a girl. These were a few of the simple things that were asked of astrologers. Another aspect of astronomy and astrology in this time period was the fact that many highly esteemed people were interested in it such as, St. Thomas, or Roger Bacon. These are just two out of many big names that were at-least interested in the subject. Basically in this time period the ideas were very prevalent in many places in Europe.

Astronomy and Astrology in the 13th and 14th centuries

2006-11-29T00:43:00.000-05:00

Astronomy and astrology seemed to grow in concert during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in Europe, with great contributions from the Islamic world and from newly translated Greek and Arabic texts. The two grew together, with astrologers demanding accurate astronomical figures to work with, and also with astrology becoming more strongly connected with medicinal studies, leading to the rise of astronomical research. Much of the research had already been performed and written by scholars in the Islamic world, and the astronomical data used by astrologers in this time was a combination of research done by period astronomers and of translated texts from the Arabic nations.
Fortunately, most of the important astronomical texts had been translated to Latin by the end of the twelfth, and the most frequently used texts were written by teachers, for use by their students. Books such as Sacrobosco's The Sphere, which conveyed only the most elementary topics of astronomy, and Theorica Planetarum, which showed the basic Ptolemaic theory for each of the heavenly bodies, were written to educate new students of astronomy in both the basics and in more complex ideas. One subject that many of these books touched upon was the differences between the Ptolemaic theories and the Aristotelian philosophies, an argument that was more often than not won by Ptolemy due to the lack of quantitative measure backing Aristotle's views. Ptolemy also had written on the subject of astrology in his work Tetrabiblios, in which he acknowledged the existence of celestial forces and the validity of astrological predictions. He stated that a person who understands the influences and has a mastery of of celestial motions and configurations should be able to predict a wide variety of natural phenomena. Thus a person who studied both astronomy and astrology would be able to predict many things on the terrestrial sphere.
Despite these facts, many astrologers were called “charlatans” by the Christian church during the thirteenth and fourteenth century due astrology's conflict with the church's beliefs against determinism. The church even went so far as to issue a condemnation on the study of astrological determinism in 1277. Astronomy, as a purer science that had no conflicting arguments, suffered no such ill will. However, both the study of the stars, and the study of how the movement of the stars effected other things continued on together.

2006-11-29T00:15:00.000-05:00

Most of the medieval astronomy had its origins based from the Islamic world and its philosophers and writings. The islamic writings had most of its origin in Greco- Roman ideas. By the 13th and 14th century, medieval scientists had to fuse the Islamic teaching, Aristotle ideas, and Christian religion to satisfy the need to describe the workings of the universe. The Ptelomy model was used for most of the very early medieval times, but then with newer ideas came a more clear picture of what astronomers thought to be the universe.

The idea that the Christian God needed to be incorporated into Aristotle's ideas was the toughest part of the medieval astronomers. With every incorporation of Aristotle there needed to be some basis for christianity to either back it up or alter it to fit into the christian ideals.

From the 13th century to the 14th century, more and more debates were over what the actual universe looked like and such. There were more advances to putting christianity and aristotle ideas together. Mathematical calculations of the earth and the celestial worlds were also advancing. There would be constant revisions and alterations of the celestial and terrestial worlds that would lead to the time of copernicus and eventually newton.

Medieval Astronomy and Astrology

2006-11-29T00:11:00.001-05:00

In the medieval period in the the 13th and 14th century astronomy and astrology reigned king in the science world. However, though they were alike in this aspect, many things differed.

Astronomy was, and basically still is, the science of observing and mapping stars and their movements. This includes the identification of celestial bodies that occur in the universe, for instance other galaxies and planets with orbiting moons. At this point, Astrology has an intersection with astronomy. Astrology revolves around the identification and placement (or alignment) of celestial bodies, and how information pertaining to a person, or being, can be drawn from this. And at this point, astrology strays from astronomy. Astronomy is a science, and as a science it is not based on a system of beliefs, as astrology is.

The knowledge of astronomy at the time was much different than modern thought, for instance the biggest one I feel is that they still believed in a Geocentric universe, in which the universe revolves around earth. This was an intense issue for the Catholic Church which taught geocentric and also held belief in it. For the 2 centuries the church fought with people forming new theories of universal movement. While this is quite prominent, there were many things that were discovered around the world in astronomy, for instance in 1054 AD the Chinese noted the appearance of the Crab Nebula.

As for problems with astrology, it became a basis in medieval life. It was a requirement for a medical education to have knowledge in astronomy, it was revered, until the scientific revolution. However, it had some problems, for instance some considered it to be heresy. Others who had more scientific beliefs also shunned the subject, claiming it be unsound.

Sites:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm

Astrology and Astronomy in the 13th and 14th Centuries

2006-11-29T00:11:00.000-05:00

During the 13^th and 14^th century astronomy was changing into the science as we know it today. Astronomers were starting to use better tools to map the sky and had a better knowledge of what was happening up there. Astrology was starting to separate from Astronomy at this time but all and all they were still really close since the astrologers needed the information that the astronomers had to show the divine connection between the earth and the heavens.

Astronomy was spreading in the universities and because of this textbooks were written by the teachers, especially in Paris. For example Johannes de Scrobosco write a text book entitled The Shere which was used as a text until the 17 century. This text book was used as an introductory text that was focused for people who wanted to study time keeping and calendar making. The book contained information on spherical astronomy and planetary motions, also it was stated that the sun moved 1 degree a day. Also it explained the retrograde motions of the planets by using an epicycle on deferent model and how eclipses were caused by shadows cast by the earth and the moon. Another textbook that was used but was intended for more advanced students was Therotica Plaanetarum and was a standard text for astronomical theory. This book taught the Ptolemaic model for the planets with geometric illustrations and models. It refined the amount the sun traveled in a day, 59.8 degrees, and again it moved in a uniform east to west motion in its eccentric deferent circle. Also it described the motion of Mars, Jupiter, Saturn as the planet moving uniformly from west to east in its epicycle and center of the epicycle moves from west to east around the deferent. This motion was uniform around a point know as the equant and the center of the deferent was halfway between the center of the earth and the equant. This was what text books of the age covered and was as expected to be known by astronomers. The advanced knowledge was known by very few people while the more basic concepts were know by almost everyone in the in university. Mathematical astronomy was still rarely studied at this time but those who studied it made the field become more sophisticated.

Also at this time a huge issue that was present was the validly of Ptolemy’s model since the introduction of Aristotelian cosmology. The biggest problem was reconciliation the eccentric and epicycle motions of Ptolemy and the concentric spheres of Aristotle. But through observational data of the time astronomers had to keep Ptolemaic model since it agreed with the data that was being gathered.

Astronomers were using more accurate instruments to measure the stars and the motions of the planets. For example the use of a new quadrant and the perfection of the astrolabe both used to measure the altitudes of the stars and planets. Also tables were being created of these observations and also from theory. Alfonsine made tables that were the standard for mathematical astronomy.

Astrology was starting split from astronomy and becoming more of a natural philosophy then a science but it still had a scholarly side to it. Astronomy supported astrology in the claim that the he heavens and the earth were connected since we get light and heat from the heavens, seasons from the solar motion around the ecliptic, and tides from the motion of the moon and the poles of the celestial sphere had a magnetic influence on certain materials. Astrologers dealt with trying to explain phenomena that happened on earth through things that happened in the sky. William of Conches of the mid 12^th century was one of the first to start separating the two by stating that, “The astrologers treat phenomena as they appear to be, whether accurately or no,” and “Astronomers deal with things as they are, whether they seem to be so or not” (Astrology). So in this time astronomy was supporting astrology very nicely but the rift in the two is coming from the use of the positions of the planets and stars for the forecasting of events and horoscopes.

Resources:

Lindberg, David C. The Beginnings of Western Science. Chicago,IL: The University of

Chicago P, 1992.

Astrology in Medieval Europe.

http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm

Astrology and Astronomy in the 13th and 14th

2006-11-29T00:01:00.001-05:00

During most of the 13^th century much of the advancements in the fields of astronomy and astrology were from the Arabic part of the world and as time went on into the 14^th century the European society began to take notice and make their own advances. Astrology was an attractive attraction in the 13^th and 14^th centuries because it offered an answer and could be applied to almost every part of human life. This Medieval Astrology was used as a form of prediction and was associated with wisdom and connection with a divine power, kind of like the prime mover. Astrologers during this time believed the cosmos is governed by a set of laws and operated with mathematical precision. Astrology during this time had to do a lot with the Zodiac and a sort of magic. In the 13^th century Arabic translations of Ptolemy’s Almagest made there way into Europe, which sparked interested in astronomy in the European minds. Astronomy during this time stems from star catalogues from earlier centuries by the Arabs. Astronomy dealt with the study of the cosmos, the stars and other planets of the night skies. The observations made from study of the skies was put down into planetary tables, a basic planetary map of our solar system was made. For you to understand astrology you would have to study astronomy. But they did not fit together. Astronomy was a real science while astrology dealt with more spiritual. During both centuries both the Arabic countries and Europe looked to translate as much of the ancient text of Greek philosophers. In the 1200’s we see the emergence of many universities in Europe and the complete works of Aristotle were available in Western Europe in a language that every scholar could read and were gaining much acceptance by these universities. One of the big issues of the day was the churches acceptance of Aristotle. The church had a very long list of problems that dealt with Aristotle’s ideas: his claim that the cosmos was eternal, his conception of determinism, his ideas on the prime mover, and the nature of the soul. Aristotle believed that the world was operated by a prime mover and this prime mover affected everything. Astrology and Astronomy slowly gained more acceptance across Europe and both have become important in daily lives.

References

http://www.medievalastrology.co.za/background_info.htm

http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in _medieval_europe.htm

http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/phys/alshukri/PHYS215/Islamic%20astronomy.htm

Astrology vs Astronomy

2006-11-29T00:01:00.000-05:00

In the 13th and 14th century, Europe was still a time of the Dark Ages so there was a minimal amount of science being learned. Most of the science being taught revolved around Astronomy and Astrology

Astronomy was the science in which scholars looked to the stars to determine time and the origins of the universe. Astronomy actually started back with the Greeks. Many Greek writings were translated into Arabic before being sent to Europe and falling into the hands of Christianity. The Church then finally translated the works into Latin. Many works, such as Ptolemy’s Almagest, were passed to scholars and eventually many scholars in Europe were able to create their own tables.

Astrology was considered the highest area of the science astronomy until its decline in the 17^th century. Because astrology was a new science, many people believed it to be fortune telling, and therefore unreliable. In actuality astrology was considered to be the direct connection with the “higher power.” It is also the knowledge that the movement of the stars directly influenced the actions of the earth, such as weather, health of a town, etc. Many academic individuals, such as doctors and physicians, carried around star charts to reference to while treating and providing a diagnosis to patients. One picture, the zodiac man, was used to provide patients a visual tool to help them understand how the stars influenced each part of their body. The picture can be viewed here: http://www.bl.uk/learning/artimages/bodies/astrology/astrologyhome.html

Astrology and astronomy can be connected in the fact that astrologers used the knowledge gained in astronomy to look at the stars to determine the location and areas of the stars. However, the two differed completely in what they studied and what they believe. Astrology took a religious viewpoint on the science, and looked at the cosmos to determine how the stars affected life on earth. Astronomy looked beyond Earth to find out the beginning. Astronomers wanted to find out how stars, planets and the Universe started. It did not take the Church’s idea of God starting the universe, which caused much rivalry between Astronomy and the Church in the future.

Astronomy and Astrology in the 13th and 14th Century

2006-11-28T23:29:00.000-05:00

Astrology is the study of the positions and aspects of celestial bodies in the belief that they have an influence on the course of natural earthly occurrences and human affairs the other hand astronomy is the scientific study of matter in outer space, especially the positions, dimensions, distribution, motion, composition, energy, and evolution of celestial bodies and phenomena. Because of the consideration and belief that the earth was the center of the universe astronomers and astrologer began to be fascinated in the heavens. They both observed the moon's and planetary positions. There was a point in time where astronomy and astrology was considered the same thing. It was said that you needed to know a little bit of both in order to understand the cosmos. Both astronomy and astrology took important roles in the 13th and 14th century. It was being translated once again into Latin from Arabic. Astrology was an everyday use, it helped people during this time to make decisions depending on their zodiac sign. Astronomy on the hand helped farmers with their crops and helped the people know the seasons.

Astronomy and astrology have both developed a lot since the 13th and 14th century. Astronomy is constantly every year evolving and helping astrologers understand better the universe. Till this day they are both being used and still considered to many very important as part of their everyday lives.

Medieval Astronomy and Astrology in the 13th & 14th Centuries

2006-11-28T23:27:00.000-05:00

The major problem that Medieval philosophers and scientists had with advancing astronomical and astrological knowledge centered around fitting the ideas of ancient Grecco-Roman and Islamic philosophers into the Christian Church’s authority over the educational institutions.

During the thirteenth century the educated people in Europe studied cosmology that was merged with Aristotelian beliefs. However, in order to fit Aristotle into biblical teachings, much debate surrounded his ideas of the heavens and the terrestrial sphere.

It is generally agreed that nothing existed outside of the cosmos and that inside of the cosmos seven concentric planetary spheres existed: moon, Mercury, Venus, sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Aristotle made no distinction between the heavens and the firmament, which was a problem pertaining to Christian biblical teaching. Later medieval cosmologists tried to reconcile the differences between cosmology and planetary astronomy because they began to draw epicycles related to Ptolemaic astronomical views. There was now a debated over how to combine this Ptolemaic astronomy with Aristotelian cosmology.

As astronomical models developed there came the basic idea that the astronomer was just to create mathematical models that would create predictions for astronomical phenomena. There were no physical limitations on these mathematical models, indeed if an astronomer were to put limitations on their model they were violating boundaries of conceptual study. Even with astronomical instruments and tables, astronomy was still considered to be mathematical theory with no relevance to the physical astrology of the cosmos.

Astrology in the Middle Ages was the study of physical influence upon the cosmos. This is a respectable study in natural philosophy. Influenced by observations there was an obvious connection between the heavens and the terrestrial sphere. The arguments of the seasons being connected with solar motion and the tides with lunar motion as well as the magnetic pull of the poles in the celestial sphere were all supported by traditional religious beliefs as well. Finally there was a merging of mathematical astronomy with physical conditions to astrology.

Astronomy and Astrology of 13/14th Cent.

2006-11-28T23:23:00.000-05:00

It seems that astronomy and astrology could be worlds apart, yet each remain closely linked through medieval history. One could not be without the other. Both were linked to a common problem in the medieval world. The need to define the cosmos created several debates in the medieval scholar's world. During this time scholars heatedly debated how to combine the models derived by Aristotlelian cosmology with those of Ptolemy. This was especially crucial as astronomists felt that quantitative measurement could not be sacrificed for the model of Ptolemy.
The quantitative mathematical structure of astronomy links itself to astrology. Astrology was not always believed to be the charlatan art of prediction. Many philosphers would not dare argue against the tie that the heavens had to it's terrestrial counterpart. The observations made including heat, light, solar motion and it's connection to the seasons only reinforced these beliefs as they too also had religious connotations. One science is dependent on the other. The quantitative measure of astronomy is necessary to record the data for keeping of calendar events. The predictions from the science of astronomy gave foundation to the predictive nature of astrology. Both were also heavily influenced by the works of Aristotle.
The two sciences also differed. Astronomy was not a required subject within the universities. Advanced knowledge was rare. What is interesting, however, is that is became one the most sophisticated learned sciences even as rare as it was practiced. Astrology, on the other hand, was required for physicians to learn. It became a mainstream science within the medieval world.

Heather Novak

Astronomy vs. Astrology

2006-11-28T23:14:00.000-05:00

Astronomy and astrology were discovered in the 13th and 14th century’s and used very widely. Astronomy is the study of the celestial bodies outside the realm of Earth. It is the study of the stars, the other planets, and of space. Astrology is the study of using the celestial bodies to explain and give us information in understanding and interpreting things about ourselves, like our personalities. These two are complementary of each other, but they also differ from each other.
The difference of the two is pretty much stated in the definitions. Astronomy deals with the scientific study of the celestial bodies, to know what is going on outside of Earth. Astrology focuses on the alignment of the heavenly bodies in respect to the human life.
The similarity between the two is that during the 13th and 14th century astronomy and astrology were seen as the same thing. They would say if you studied astrology then you also studies astronomy and vice versa. The differences were not seen until the 18th century. Astronomy and astrology were also seen as the aiding in illnesses. People would look to the heavens for answers.
In conclusion, astronomy and astrology in the 13th and 14th century had differences, but were also similar in each other.

Medieval Astronomy and Astrology

2006-11-28T22:47:00.000-05:00

Medieval astronomers and astrologers made detailed observations of the sky and the celestial bodies above them. However, the ideology and theories that evolved from these observations often differed drastically from each other. Astrology in the 13th and 14th century was commonly referred to as predictive astrology. This type of astrology stems from the insights and developments of Neoplatonic philosophy and the Hermatic tradition. The Hermatic tradition is heavily seeded in the spiritual world and was named after Hermes Trismigestus who was a Greek moniker. This tradition is connected with alchemy and magical or mystical orders.

Medieval astrology took a geocentric view of the universe and was widely accepted as a branch of science. Furthermore, the average medieval Christian saw astrology as a manifestation of divine power. This divine power was rooted in the motions of the planets and was embraced by prominent members of the theological community. Thomas Aquinas saw that the moon could influence the tides on earth, so there was no reason why the motions of the planets could not influence the everyday lives of people. Medieval astrology can be broken down into the two fields of divination and medical applications. Divinations was commonly identified as “magic” and associated with sorcerers and the devil. Thomas Aquinas himself did not support the use of astrological knowledge for the general prediction of the future (although divination would quickly be accepted in the form of the Zodiac). On the other hand, a majority of medieval physicians incorporated astrology into their medical practices. Any painful symptoms (covering a wide range of illnesses) had a clear religious element. Taking ill was often connected with a punishment for sin or a sign that the Creator demanded some form of virtue. Astrology was used to discern the influence of the Creator and direct the actions of the followers in his service. The following image shows how each part of the Zodiac (described further in the following paragraph) was directly related to the parts of the body. These relations allowed physicians to make strong connections between celestial bodies and specific health problems.

Image: Zodiac and Organs

The medieval Zodiac (with a detailed illustration visible in the following image link) carried with it different meanings than those associated with modern astrology. The Zodiac was broken down into 12 different houses and each house was overseen by a ruler. For example, Aries ruled over the first house while Taurus ruled over the second. These rulers were responsible for certain elements in the life of a common medieval peasant. For example, Gemini influenced communication while Cancer looked over the home/house. The following image is decorated with images of angels and other symbols of divinity. This clearly reflects the religious roots of astrology and for the common God-fearing Christian peasant, just how large of a role it played in everyday life.

Image: Medieval Zodiac

Astronomical advances in the middle ages began slowly. Arabians made some very detailed observations in the 9th and the 10th century. These observations were thorough enough to develop basic planetary tables. However, despite the details of these observations, there were few groundbreaking developments in terms of astronomical theories. Western Europe began to take notice of astronomical thought when copies of Ptolemy’s Almagest began to circulate amongst scholars and philosophers. Initially, some short commentaries were produced from the information contained in Ptolemy’s work. Following the tradition of the Arabian astronomers of centuries early, Europeans were also able to assemble some basic tables of planetary motion.

Astronomy was valued during the Middle Ages for a very different reason than astrology. First, astronomy was an application of real science. While astrology was deeply rooted in spiritual and divine issues, astronomy had a very practical foundation. People wanted to know when to celebrate certain holidays (specifically, the exact date of Easter) and the best time to plants crops for maximum yields at harvest time. Early astronomy took a heliocentric view of the universe (as opposed to the geocentric or earth centered view of early astronomy). There were four main areas of concern for the medieval astronomer. Solar theory focused on the most important of the celestial objects, the sun. Lunar theory examined the second most important celestial object, the moon. Celestial theory tried to explain the movement of the stars and planetary theory looked at the motions of the planets (including such advanced concepts as retrograde motion). Astronomers made use of models based on spherical motion to explain their celestial observations. Not only do spherical models work well some simple celestial observations (their predications are valid for several decades in some cases without correction) but the sphere was also considered to be the perfect shape within Aristotelian philosophy. It made sense to the astronomers of the time that God would have designed his universe around the perfect shape. The modeling of the universe with spherical models allowed for the development of tools such as the astrolabe, which projected the celestial sphere onto a plane. The following link connects to an image of an astrolabe. Although it is difficult to identify the exact sphere projected on the plane, some simple astronomical characteristics are visible. This particular astrolabe is known as the Planisphaeric Astrolabe, is made of brass and required precise engineering to properly lay out the arcs, circles and star positions on the planes.

Image: Astrolabe

There is a clear contrast between the practical applications of astronomy and the religious connections of astrology. Astronomy offered medieval people one of their first chances to genuinely understand the world around them without the inclusion of divine prophecy or spiritual influence. However, despite the important advances made by medieval astronomers, their work did not replace astrological beliefs in a single day, year or even century. The connections of astrology to divination, health and everyday life ensured that people would continue to embrace its ideology throughout the middle ages and into the modern era. However, the connection between astrology and actual science began to decay with the advent of astronomy and continued steadily from that point onwards.

References:
http://www.medievalastrology.co.za/background_info.htm
http://www.gloriana.nu/astrology.html
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572208_2/Astronomy_History_of.html
http://www.humboldt.edu/~rap1/EarlySciInstSite/Workshops/PracMedAstro_2.htm

Astrology + Astronomy = Friends

2006-11-28T22:44:00.000-05:00

Astronomy and Astrology ran parallel with each other until throughout the 13th and 14th centuries. Astrology is the belief that heavenly bodies, planets and stars, have an effect on a persons daily life. Astronomy is the study of the planets and stars and is actual science. I found it funny that the church came to accept astrology as a reputable science and didn't ban it or burn anyone and everyone that practiced it. I thought this was interesting because Astrology by definition, is to foretell the future which takes free will out of the equation and as we know people were burned at the stake for not believing in free will. Even Thomas Aquinas believed that astrologers were "able to foretell the truth..Especially when they undertake in general predictions." He thought this because he said men were "governed by their passions... In these the influence of stars is clearly felt". Thomas Aquinas recognized that the moon could influence the tides on earth and it wasn't hard to believe that it also influenced man. He did not believe that the knowledge obtained from astrology should be used to predict the future. Most would believe that the church would not stand for this because it is "magic" but the reason why there is no conflict here is because during medieval times magic was thought to be communication with spirits.

When earth was shown not to be the center of the universe, 17th century, from the likes of Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler astrology and it's influence began to lose it's influence and was beginning to be thought of as unscientific. Astrology and Astronomy are of course deeply intertwined and were hardly discernible from one another during this period however, as time wore on and physics came into play people began to see that astrology had no place next to astronomy.

http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm
http://www.gloriana.nu/astrology.html
http://members.tripod.com/~navagraha/antiquityastrology.html

Astronomy vs Astrology

2006-11-28T22:37:00.000-05:00

In the 13th and 14th centuries in Europe, astronomy and astrology played a major role in everyday life. These two disciplines focused on planetary alignments and the state of the cosmos. Although they are similar in that respect and this causes them to complement one another, they diverged drastically in many areas.
Astrology is based primarily on theory that came about during observations of the cosmos. At this point in history it was very difficult to pursue an interest in medicine and to become a doctor without mastering the realm of astrology first. This demonstrates how entwined that this practice was at this time. What was known about the stars was simplistic in nature. Obviously planetary movements were well documented over the centuries and tidal changes had been attributed to lunar cycles. Mathematical processes had given rough estimates to the size and distance of planets and stars. Astronomy was a very important discipline because of the mysteriousness of the cosmos and the connection to an omnipotent god.
The two studies differed drastically in the pursuit of truth. Astronomy focused on mathematics and empirical data to divulge predictions on the nature of the universe and it’s past. This caused a great rift in view points between astronomers and the church. The church used astrology to get information on god’s will and reasoning behind the events taking place. They did not question the information as did astronomers. Astrologists became very hard to deal with in this time in history because they would make predictions based on the star charts and planet positions. Predictions were made about everything and rifts between social classes grew further because god willed it like it is. Feudal systems became empowered by the predictions that were made to support them. “The primary goal of astronomy is to understand the physics of the universe. Astrologers use astronomical calculations for the positions of celestial bodies to observe correlations between celestial events with earthly events and human affairs. The role of astrology as an important motivation for astronomical research diminished as the works of Galileo and others solved the problems in celestial mechanics that were of interest to astrologers, and as belief in directly causal astrological influences or correlations became largely extinct among astronomers. The needs of modern navigation and physics became the prime motivating factors for subsequent astronomical research.” - http://astrologynotes.org/History
Devices were designed to connect astronomy to every day events. One such device was the astrolabe to make predictions for the events that were going to transpire on any given day, week, month, or year. More specifically “Astrolabes are used to show how the sky looks at a specific place at a given time. This is done by drawing the sky on the face of the astrolabe and marking it so positions in the sky are easy to find.” - http://www.astrolabes.org/ These could be utilized in navigation by taking into consideration the map that it presents as an aid. Positions of heavenly bodies could easily be found and used to travel a long path.
Astronomy and Astrology were once merged as one discipline but diverged over time with corruption and over use by the church and its official’s unwillingness to listen to reason.

Astronomy vs Astrology in the 13th and 14th Centuries

2006-11-28T22:33:00.000-05:00

In the 13th and 14th centuries, Europe was fighting to get out of the Dark Ages. Any real science and learning was going on in the areas around Europe--Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East. Before the Dark Ages, Greek astronomy had been translated into Arabic, and around the 13th and 14th centuries it was beginning to be translated back into Latin. At about this time, the astrolabe made it's way into Europe via Spain. Since these astrolabes had Arabic star names on them, these names stuck and are still used today. However, the Islamic astronomers were more interested in things like the phases of the moon and revolutions of the planets around the Sun than about extrasolar events. They have little to no record of the supernova of 1054 (Crab Nebula)! They mostly focused on Ptolemy, whether it be to prove him correct or to edit his theories. Astronomy was pursued as a way of navigation and timekeeping. There was an ongoing debate about how to construct a calendar that agreed with the lunar phases. It was also used to signal yearly events, such as the rising of the Nile in Egypt.
The full works of Aristotle had been translated into Latin at this time. This meant every scholar in every college was reading them. Aristotle believed that the motions of the planets and heavenly bodies affected the lives of people on Earth, and with all scholars and philosophers reading this theory, the Catholic church was forced to accept it as a science. The same held true for the works of Ptolemy, however he only believed the positions of stars at the time of birth could predict the future. Arabs took this to a higher level, saying a star chart could answer any question or tell what time is best to do something. Eventually all prominent figures in society (even the Pope) had an interest in astrology.
Astronomy was important in this time period because it was used to help people make decisions.
Astronomy was a more practical type of science, it had timekeeping and navigation perks. Astrology was a day to day type of science, more to tell a person what clothes to wear or where to eat lunch that day. Both very important and widely used in society.

reference for astronomy

http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/phys/alshukri/PHYS215/Islamic%20astronomy.htm

reference for astrology

http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm

Final Blog

2006-11-28T22:31:00.000-05:00

Astrology is the knowledge of where celestial bodies are in space, and it uses those positions to predict the future and many other things. Before the scientific revolution studying astrology was vital in learning more about math, medicine, and psychology. Astrologers of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries would track the movement of celestial objects, such as the sun, the moon, the planets, and the stars. Astrology was not accepted by all the people back then. It was challenged by many groups including, the church and Hellenistic followers. Astronomy is different from astrology; it focuses on how the universe formed and it is focused on the evolution of celestial objects. Astrologers use astronomy to find positions of celestial bodies, and then they relate that celestial events that might occur. For a while the two terms astrology and astronomy were known as the same thing. If you studied astrology, you also studied astronomy and vice versa. People who were examples of this are Galileo and Kepler. The two fields of study didn’t differentiate themselves until the mid eighteenth century. In medieval Europe the term astronomia was used to describe both astrology and astronomy. It was known as one of the seven liberal arts. Even medical students were taught both astronomy and astrology so they could astrologically diagnose an illness and then treat it accordingly. Back in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries believing that the earth was the center of the universe was considered fact. Everyone believed that the other planets and the sun rotated around earth. There was one accepted ways that a person could determine which planets and stars affected their horoscope. When a person is born, an astrologer interprets the time and then uses math to figure which celestial bodies will impact your horoscope. In conclusion, astrology and astronomy have come a long way since the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.

Astronomy and Astrology in the 13th and 14th Centuries

2006-11-28T22:16:00.008-05:00

Astronomical knowledge in the 13th and 14th century was mostly comprised of Greek and Arabic thought. Stars had been identified, planetary oribts discovered, and astrolabes had been invented and circulated throughout Western Europe during this period. Most astronomical achievements of the medieval ages through the 14th century took place in the Islamic world. Most of the work of Arab scholars was critiques of earlier astronomers like Ptolemy, but some of it was improved upon. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Ibn al-Shatir, Islamic scholars at critics of Ptolemy added to his work on planetary orbits by modifying Ptolemy's theories with epicycles and accounting for mechanical objections.

Ptolemy's conception of the universe:

The work of Ptolemy in his nomenclature of stars was translated from Arabic into Latin where his names were accepted in Europe. Critiques of the Greek scientist, Ptolemy were written by Arabs. The nomenclature of stars was translated from Arabic (which drew most of its names from Greeks and more specifically, Ptolemy) into Latin and distributed through Europe during this time period as well. However, some Europeans did add to astronomical knowledge in this time period. Medieval European astronomers used their knowledge to chart the night sky, observe space phenomena like comets, and predict calendar events. Robert Grossteste contributed to astronomical knowledge in his writings during the 13th century. Grossteste said that the milky way was a fusion of light from many stars. Frenchman Nicole Oresme, who lived in the 14th century came up with a precursor to gravity and even suggested the possibility of life on other planets.

Astrological knowledge, if you can call it knowledge, in 13th and 14th centuries had reached a point to where it could be applied to almost any aspect of life. Predictions and evaluations of many phenomena could be made using astrology. Scholars of the time period accepted its use as effective and necessary, especially in medicine. It was well recognized in the 13th and 14th centuries that the movement of the stars had a direct impact on the occurrence of events, and that they had predictive power for future ones. Italian astrologer, Guido Bonatus, wrote books that survive to this day about proper astrological techniques and inquiry.

Picture of the astrological signs:

Astrology was accepted in the Holy Roman Emporer's court as well. Astrologer Michael Scot served in the court of Emperor Frederick II and conducted original research into topics such as menstruation and moon phases. However, some of the astrological knowledge during this time period smacks of superstition rather than an actual knowledge base. For example, the sex of a woman's unborn child was said to be identified through which hand the pregnant woman extended when asked to extend either hand. Although astrology had a definite stronghold in the 13th and 14th centuries, many of this period's leading scholars like St. Thomas Aquinas and Roger Bacon denounced its merit.

Astrology and astronomy are both rooted in celestial events. The study of astronomy was not entirely separated from astrology because astrology utilizes astronomical principles of planetary movement to form predictions about divine intenctions. Astronomy complements astrology because the astronomical studies supply astrology with information to formulate predictions. Even Ptolemy, the great Greek astronmer, beleived in some form of astrology when he said, "Foreknowledge accustoms and calms the soul by experience of distant events as though they were present, and prepares it to greet with calm and steadiness whatever comes."

Although astrologers buy into astronomy, astronomers and scientists do not buy into astrology. The theories of astrology cannot be proven or disproven by scientific research. Astronomy deals with mathematical concepts, but astrology is mystical and faith-based. There is no way for an astrologer to be wrong because their principles are not based in reality. Astrology is almost like a religion in that it cannot be operationally defined and studied.

Final Assignment

2006-11-20T09:46:00.000-05:00

This is the final blog assignment. It is due by 8 am, on Wednesday, November 29th. All entries must be posted by 8 pm, Tuesday November 28th and 8 am, Wednesday. No one may post an entry before that time.

Please limit answers to 1000 words or less. Links to graphics or other websources may be used to illustrate a point that would take to much time to describe otherwise. However, your answer should not be a simple list of weblinks.

Question: Describe the state of astronomical and astrological knowledge in the 13th and 14th centuries. How were the two complementary and how did they differ? What were the major issues of the day?

2006-11-06T15:47:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard considered himself “the only surviving philosopher in the whole world,” and was by not stretch a scientist of any means, but was a supporter of education in the medieval ages. Much of what Abelard did to support education and science was not seen directly through him during his life, but after his life through his pupils and collections of letters that we wrote to friends. Abelard attended school as a teen in Paris, and soon was able to defeat a master in argument on philosophy which in turn changed the medieval view on philosophy from Realist to Conceptualism. After which Abelard set up his on school with his own thoughts on philosophy to counter the opposing schools. Abelard didn’t stop at philosophy but continued with theology. When lecturing he attracted huge crowds of students, and his career teaching were no doubt a great one. Abelard was an enormous influence on medieval thought and with the revival of learning in the Medieval Ages which focused on science, literature, and philosophy.

Source
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01036b.htm

Peter Abelard

2006-11-06T12:42:00.000-05:00

Modern science is usually defined by the use of empirical evidence to systematically discover truths about the world we live in. Most subjects that we consider science include a mathematical basis. For example: physics, chemistry, engineering, and psychology (which employs statistics in order to obtain significant results). However, in Greek times up through the Scientific Revolution, science was not necessarily defined by its explicit use of mathematics.

Peter Abelard, as well as Aristotle, Plato, and many other great thinkers can still be considered scientists because they were conducting systematic, logical inquiry into their world to the best of their ability without modern scientific methods. Inquiry is at the heart of all scientific pursuits. Therefore, medieval scholars like Peter Abelard can still be considered scientists, because of their devotion to rational inquiry and epistemology.

Peter Abelard explored both philosophy and religion. He was a religious man who sought not to undermine Christianity, but to seek truth through philosophy and rational thought. His best known work, Sic et Non, shows his revolutionary and rational style to approaching controversial topics from both sides of an argument, allowing the student/reader to, ultimately, make their own decision. Logic, part of the trivium, was central to Peter Abelard's inquiries. Logic, a very scientific thought pioneered by the Greeks, was considered to be an essential part of education. Logic allows people to learn things about their world without directly encountering them.

Other evidence that supports Peter Abelard's title as a great scientist include his shift of focus from the intangible, world-to-come back to the world-at-hand. Science does not focus on heaven, but rather the physical world. The same holds true for Peter Abelard. Peter Abelard also contributed to the development of theology. Although theology is not considered a modern science, we can still recognize the significant contribution that it made to beginning the tradition of modern science. A great scientist is someone who questions the origins and seeks to explain using all the methods and evidence he or she can. Peter Abelard, through his inquiry into philosophy, epistemology, and religion has questioned and pioneered and, thus, can be considered a great scientist.

Resources: (in addition to the texts)

Abelard and Epistemology

2006-11-06T09:47:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard was one of the great scholastic figures of his time. One of his key attributes was his medieval “knight” spirit (Abelard himself came from a military family). Abelard constantly drove himself towards glory and rarely turned away from controversial or sensitive issues. He stated “Since I preferred the armour of logic... I exchanged all other arms for it and chose the contests of disputation above the trophies of warfare”. Abelard also had a lifelong commitment to learning. While he could have been a very successful and informed scholar and teacher with his knowledge of the Trivium (grammar, logic and rhetoric), Abelard choose to enroll in theology classes between teaching at his own school outside of Paris. Peter so often challenged the ideals of the instructors of theology that he was encouraged by other students around him to lecture on more controversial issues. When he gave lectures, he encouraged his students to question anything and everything. When he was questioned on an issue, it was rare to find him at a loss for words. His answers were both consistent and reasonable.
What separated Abelard from the other minds of his time were the few simple questions that his life revolved around. Peter was deeply interested in “epistemology” or the theory of knowledge. Essentially, he wanted to know what alternate methods were available to learn about reality. He did not believe that epistemology was limited to the traditional methods of reading ancient books and prayer. Abelard wanted to know how our reality changes when we choose to look at it using these ancient methods. Finally, how does the language that we use to describe our reality relate to the actual reality of the object being described? It was these questions, which were so entirely different from anything pondered before, which resulted in Peter Abelard’s lasting legacy. Some of these grounding breaking questions can clearly be connected to modern scientific thought and investigation. Although Abelard did not single handedly define any significant areas of practical science, his epistemology opened the door for scientists and scholars for hundreds of years to come.

References:

http://www.humanities.mq.edu.au/Ockham/x52t05.html

Rubenstein, Richard. Aristotle's Children.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-06T09:21:00.000-05:00

"By doubting we come to inquire and by inquiry we arrive at truth".

While Peter Abelard is not a "great scientist" in the traditional sense he is a great proponent of scientific thought and this fact helped foster actual scientific discoveries. He achieved this by challenging traditional thought and values without regard for how sacred they were or who these thoughts and ideas stemmed from.
Peter Abelard challenged church thought and then left it to his students to discover for themselves whether or not the questions he posed were valid or not. This is the main reason why Abelard can be considered a great scientist, he thought like a scietist and taught younger generations to question anything and everything no matter the source. The church could not make up it's mind about Abelards teaching and would go from repremanding him to praising him for his teaching techniques. This is a common trait with these early thinkers and scientists. You can name countless scientists that were forced by the church to change their views and discoveries in order to not contradict the church. But Peter Abelard believed reason could show the existence of God and it is sad that the church was so hard on this man who had great faith in his religion.
Peter Abelard may not have made any contributions to scientific theories or mathematical proofs but he was an early modern day scientific thinker. His mind worked like a scientist and his thoughts inspired future generations to question which is what science is all about.

References:
http://latter-rain.com/eccle/abela.htm
http://www2.nd.edu/Departments//Maritain/etext/abelard.htm
http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/142.html

Peter Abelard

2006-11-06T00:05:00.000-05:00

A key dilemma of science in the Middle Ages occurred when scientific theory seemed at odds with church doctrine. By showing contradictory statements in church teachings, Peter Abelard would advance scientific progress. His rigorous analysis of church doctrine would introduce a paradigm of reason that promoted a more open exchange of ideas. He would attempt to use logic, and logic only, to show the validity of church beliefs that were accepted by faith alone. As science is grounded in logic, teaching validity by faith alone did not provide a good environment for science to prosper. Allowing logic to become an acceptable means by which to establish ideas, created a more conducive environment for the advance of science. Although Abelard did not discover new scientific ideas, he greatly advanced science by promoting a better environment for scientific advances to occur; thus, he should be considered a great scientist.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T23:35:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard was not a scientist in the sense that he used experimentation and observation to expand the body of scientific knowledge. He was a scientist in the sense that formalized and revitalized the science of thought. In a world where faith and reason were mutually incompatible he was able to show that masses how to apply reason to faith in a congruous manner. He provided a rigid structure to philosophy where, prior to his influence, Church doctrine was the basis for any valid arguement. Combining the logic of Aristotle with the words of Church Fathers, Abelard produced his work Sic et Non, literally "Yes and No." This work compared contradictory statements that were all considered to be true. In doing so, he was able to reconcile the statements through the ambiguity of language and context. The work was likely intended to be a guide for others to apply philosophical structure to theology. If the purpose of science is to enlighten the world, then Peter Abelard was truely a gifted scientist in that he gave the world the tools to enlighten itself.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T23:24:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard was not a medieval scientist; however he was a medieval philosopher and theology who openly supported science. He formed his own school where he taught his students around the principles of Aristotle. Instead of being focused on science, he was focused on how science can be related to oneself. Abelard was mainly focused on logic, and this is why he was closely related to science. He had many views on how things work logically and thus promoted scientific thought. For instance he promoted thought on species and how a group of men could be classified as one thing, when everyone is different. It is this thought that can make Peter Abelard a great scientist. Science is not only conducting experiments but also have thing knowledge and logic to force thought. Through his teachings and works, he promoted other scientists to pursue scientific work and therefore is known in history as a great scientist.

The Reintroduction of Reason

2006-11-05T23:11:00.000-05:00

Between the fall of Roman and the Renaissance lies this time period known as the middle ages. Here lies a time where science, reason, and philosophy take a back seat to most other things in people's lives. Few people were contributed anything to science and philosophy in Europe at this time. However, Peter Abelard may be considered one of that greatest scientist and thinkers during this time of "darkness". While Abelard didn't practice science as we know it today, he definately brought reason and logic into the religious thinking that was prevelent during that time period. Instead of just accepting what the church said, he somewhat challenged its ideals and theories, and instead justified what the church stated by using reason to prove what the church said. His most famous work, Sic et Non, presented controversial issues, and asked to defend or argue against what the issue was. Instead of just teaching students, Abelard would force them to think for themselves. Abelard, much like a scientist, didn't just sit back and accept what was being told to him. He used reason and thought to prove what was being told to him was in fact the truth. He was a defender of the church, but because he would ask questions and challenge the ideas, he was condemned by the church, especially his writings. Yet he never stopped his thinking and writings. Peter Abelard was almost like a religious scientist.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T23:06:00.000-05:00

In the Middle Ages, what can be considered a “great scientist” is a rather broad spectrum, rather than what most people are accustomed to as a more specific term. The reason behind this is due to the lack of scientific thought in the early Middle Ages / Dark Ages. This is not to imply that there was no scientific thinking, it is rather to point out that no significant progress in the field of science was made in this time period.

In Ancient times, what made the Roman and Greek civilizations so great were their push for scientific thought. The quest for knowledge through means of logical and rational thinking is what formed the basis for Ancient knowledge, and after the fall of the Roman Empire, this was all but lost. The Christian church had no desire to look deep into scientific thought and reasoning, as they were certain that all they needed to know was kept in the word of God, and that there was nothing more required to be intelligent.

While being a devout member of his faith, Peter Abelard did what many of his contemporaries were too afraid to do: question faith and provide rational, logical explanation to what could be found in scripture. But this is not to say he was challenging his belief system; rather, he was looking only for an explanation that could be deduced from the world around him.

This is what makes Peter Abelard capable of being considered a “great scientist”. While generating nothing particularly new of his own, he was the first major figure in Western civilization to bring back that which was the core of Ancient wisdom: logical and rational thinking. Rather than blindly following that which he was taught and being content with religion, the way Abelard rationally approached his faith brought back a level of knowledge that was dormant for the most of the Middle Ages. By asking questions that silenced an entire class out of sheer awe of someone with enough courage to question, by writing Sic et Non, which challenged his readers to rationally argue why the biblical truths are in fact true, Peter Abelard set the foundation for a revival of scientific thought.

Absolutely speaking, Abelard’s contributions do not seem like much. But relatively speaking, in his time period, in a time that one can consider it intellectually “dark”, Abelard is seen as a beacon of light, of intelligence, of someone who was willing to stand up and ask questions, to do what the Greeks did: asking questions about everything around them, and providing the true answers, defining the world around them. This is what makes him great, and what allows scientific thought to begin anew in the late Middle Ages.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T22:50:00.000-05:00

A great scientist would be someone that advances the process of science and creates a productive environment. Though Abelard did not advance the specific scientific practices or theories he did provide the environment students needed to advance scientific thought and logic. As a teacher Abelard inspired and challenged his students to think for themselves and analyze critically. This training of the mind was a revolution of the time, stepping away from the traditional rote memorization of a teacher's personal interpretation or the interpretations of the one's who had gone before, to the individual interpretation and analysis. Abelard inspired his students to discuss between themselves the challenges he placed before them. He made controversial topics, bordering on heresy the talk of the tavern. When he wrote Sic et non the purpose was to show his students that every argument has two sides. He wrote it as a workbook that his students would use to learn how to argue, it was not designed to give the answers.
It was a beginning of a long term confrontation between faith and reason. Abelard used logic and reason to replace faith. Though no-one could argue Abelard's belief in God and the bible as God's word he did create controversy with the church. After his mutilation Abelard became a devote member of a monastery which furthered his devotion. In his treatise on the Trinity Abelard pushed the limits too far and was forced to throw the book into the fire by the Council of Soissons. After this Abelard's reputation was considerably damaged and he remained in monasteries for the next ten years. Though his work had been condemned this would not discourage Abelard's devoted students. Abelard had such charisma they came to him for more education even when he was barred from the universities. In the book Aristotle's Children Abelard is portrayed almost as a modern day cult leader would be. Though, rather than filling his followers heads with his ideas he taught them to think. This is not to say Abelard did not have his opinions and express them energetically. Abelard brought a new life to science to follow logic and reasoning, to ask the important questions and to look at all the sides to an argument. These are strategies that require a open minded society that Abelard did not experience. Abelard gave power to students by asking them to think for themselves which was not always appreciated by the more traditional teachers. Without a major discovery or scientific theory Abelard advanced scientific thought through charisma and inspiration.

Peter Abeland

2006-11-05T22:27:00.000-05:00

I think Abeland can be considered a great scientist, you just have to limit the ways that he can be applied to science. Abeland was an expert in logic, this is very important in arguing that his works support science. The was that he worked was completely counter-cultural in his time. He was always looking for controversy. Looking for things that were not concrete and trying to make them solid by applying logic to them.

The way that he used logic can be compared to scientific methods. Scientific methods are trying to take something that is uncertain and make it to where it can be very close to proven. Just like in science it was almost impossible to actually prove something but with enough thought and effort an argument, that was legitimate, could be established. This opened the gates for science in two ways.

This allowed science to challenge the church, because here was some one from inside the church challenging everyone else within. The second reason was that his work showed a format to establishing arguments and backing them up. This format would later be turned into the scientific method.

Abelard

2006-11-05T22:25:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard was a free thinking man who followed his rational thought before the preconscribed beliefs ingrained through church indoctination. Without his knowledge of the rules that governed Christianity he would have likely been seen completely as a heretic. He was a modern man living in the middle ages, with ideas of reason that would later be integral to things we not trivialize like the scientific method. Would Hippocrates still be considered if all he did was create an oath that now all doctors must take, sure its the basis for the philosophy of medicine. Then of course Abelard should be considered a scientist despite his lack of physical study, so what if he never dissected or experiemented or invented, he was still one of the men who saw that reason could be used in place of emotion to produce more accurate results and more consistant ones. It was controversial and it was not very well accepted but he still put the ideas out there that what the forefathers said, could mean anything and could be used for any purpose, that didn't make it right. He was also the first to examine the intent of the offender, did they mean to do it. Up until that, there was no such thing as an accident.

Abelard

2006-11-05T22:12:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard was man well known for his philosophy who became notorious for his teaching and intellectual thinking. However, he was not considered as a great scientist during this time. I believe there are reasons and ways Abelard could have had built a reputation based on his scientific thoughts. He was known for was using rational argument over truth as his method of teaching. Thinking scientifically he believed that through reason, man could possibly gain knowledge of God. When I read this quote it made me think of a person trying to dig deeper into further detail to explain arguments, the same way a scientist would think trying to prove something discovered. Abelard states, "By doubting, we come to inquire and by inquiry we arrive at truth". Unfortunately, the church never accepted Abelard’s method of teaching; therefore, they got rid of his work by burning it.
Abelard was an influential man but the book Sic et Non meaning yes or no created the most controversy. Basically, his intentions to maintain truth you must weight all sides of the issue. Abelard was a brave and bold man because in the book he used quotes from Father’s of the church and proved how they could be contradicted by other Father’s quotes. He definitely made a good point, in which you should look at all sides of an issue, regardless of what the issue and your opinion might be. He also left this an open issue so others could think for themselves. During his time Abelard made a few people angry because his argued to not only use faith but reason in an argument, which is the why he should be considered a great scientist. He was willing to accept the consequences and his work should have been more valued.

Peter Abelard, the Philospher and Theologian

2006-11-05T22:07:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard can still be considered a “great scientist” because keeping ideas alive can be just as difficult as coming up with new ideas. Abelard was well known as a logician and philosopher who did not hesitate to use his sharp wits and even sharper tongue when it came to debates, especially in matters of religion. He was marked as a hero during the enlightenment after winning a debate against Bernard of Clairvaux who he supposedly studied under for a short time. Peter’s works could fall into three main categories: dialectic, ethics, and philosophical theology. In dialectics his two main works were: Logica ‘ingredientibus’ (a textual commentary on the ideas of old logic) and Dialectic (a thematic treatise on dialectic). Abelard’s works in ethics included: Ethica seu Scito teipsum “Ethics, or, Know Yourself”, and Collationes “Converations”. In philosophical theology Abelard concentrated on his analysis of the trinity in the books, Theologia ‘summi boni’, Theologia christiana, and Theologia ‘schoarium’. Along with these topics Abelard wrote about Metaphysics and was one of the primary examples of nominalism in the region where he wrote that universality was a semantic feature of language and not an ontological feature of the world. Basically, Abelard meant that universality was merely linguistic not a feature of the world. He also believed that all material objects were comprised of the four main elements: earth, wind, fire, and water. In the field of logic Abelard created truth-fictional propositional logic which recognized the difference between force and content. He also devised a complete theory of entailment and how it worked in an argument. Peter Abelard might not be a scientist in the way most people think of scientists, one who invents or discovers; he is because he is one of the greatest logicians of the Middle Ages. He taught people how to think, question and reason things which are of necessity in all scientific studies.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T20:35:00.002-05:00

Is Peter Abelard still to be considered a great scientist? This question arises the need to question what is a scientist, whether it be modern or past. A scientist by nature, in my personal opinion, is someone who strives and devotes to the advancement of knowledge and understanding regardless of how society responds. The devotion to the cause is sometime strayed by society however, and in some cases even restricted. This is the type of world in which Abelard lived in. The Christian reign of his time period hindered the advancement of knowledge adn understanding in certain areas, since they disproved the faith. However, this didn't stop some from moving foward, but most wouldnt dare to fight the church. In this situation the definition of a scientist can be adapted, to a more braod one. Here the advancement of knowledge can also be the promotion, restoration, and/or the financing of science. This allows for science to be retained and not lost, as in the sort stint of the dark ages. Reinventing the wheel is lengthy, this allows for that to be a mute issue.

If this is accepted as the definition of a scientist under the circumstances that society adheres, then Abelard qualifies. While he was unable to break the mold and stand against the church in his thinking, he helped to teach earlier works of knowledge that predated christian thought. Unintenitionally passing on the knowledge to think outside the box, something that was not often in the times. Because of his actions the advancement of science and thought of other methods was passed on, contributing to modern thought in more than one way.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T20:35:00.001-05:00

The medievel times were called the dark ages for one reason - the absence of reason. Gone were the days of Aristotle and Plato, where truth could be found in discussions of wise men. Burned in pyres were the precious books of great thinkers. Man returned primitive, magical thinking. Religion was all powerful and science was heresy.

Peter Abelard, 1079 to 1142, represents Man's return to scientific reason. Through his work and teachings, he was able to persuade the Western world that science and religion could co-exist and indeed, were dependent upon each other. He say theology as the handmaiden of knowledge, and he believed that through reason man could gain a greater knowledge of God.

This concept was quite heretical in its time and Abelard's first writings were burned as blasphemous against God.

It is because of his beliefs that we live today comfortable with beliefs in both religion and science.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T20:35:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard (1079-1142) can still be considered a great scientist due to his abilities as a great lecturer, debater, and philosopher. According to definition, a scientist is one having expert knowledge of one or more sciences, especially a natural or physical science. Although this may not necessarily be the case in those specific fields, he possessed an expert knowledge in the field of logic.

Many people believed Abelard to be the greatest logician of the Middle Ages and the first great nominalist philosopher. What made him unique was his rationalist approach and defense of theological positions that were often considered dangerous.

He was both a student and teacher, displaying his genius in everything he did. Abelard wrote various works with conflicting opinions on several theological questions, not necessarily for the purpose of proving them wrong but with intentions of defending them. Abelard would pose problems using conflicting opinions, which would then put them under philosophical investigation. Peter Abelard's view, which I feel best describes all of his actions, is that the road to belief must pass through doubt. He invoked the doubt and was simply unbeatable in debate. He sparked scientific thought and questions in the minds of many. Although Peter Abelard never made an advances in science himself, he debated those ideas already established and ultimately strengthened their validity.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T20:17:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard can still be considered a great scientist for many reasons. One is that he demonstrated the way that scientific processes should be approached, through reason and asking a basic question yes or no. In his work Sic et Non (Yes or no) he asks many questions pertaining to faith and then answering that question with a pro position and a con position. These yes or no answers are written by priests and other scholars. So this work can be seen as a research paper on the questions of faith that everyone had. You could pick up this book find your question and then by reading what was written can figure out what the answer was. This is one job that scientists have, to compile what has already been written in a certain area and then understand what is being said and draw your own conclusions. Also to find and or think of new answers or questions that no one has yet come up with form these pervious writings. Also he can be considered a great scientist since he was able to enthuse his students to discuss these questions and answers, he did not provide them with the answers, they had to figure it out. This is what any teacher of science should do, instead of saying this is the correct answer have the students discuss the question and have them arrive at the correct answer by using logic, reason and the data that is present. This is how Abelard taught, by asking the questions and the students discussing them, and the great thing was that the discussions between the students did not stop when class was over, they kept going. This is how new discoveries happen, through passionate discussion and reason of what can be true and what can not be true and the bouncing of ideas off other people. Abelard is not a scientist in the true sense, like making a discovery, but what he did do was open the door of thought and reason. Thus he paved the way for others to ask complicated questions about their world and showed them to use thought, reason and discussion to find the appropriate answers.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T20:13:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard was a brilliant thinker, a priest, and a proponent of thought and rational reasoning. However, as some might inquire, is he worthy of the title “scientist?”

Abelard was undoubtedly one of the greatest minds of his time. His intelligence and sheer wit were hard-pressed to be matched. Thanks in part to his brilliance, as well as his ambitious and controversial attitude, he was able to make his presence known throughout Europe and the Church. With this fame, he was able to get his ideas and thoughts to spread quicker and cause more of a stir. However, his works weren’t in physics or optics or what one might expect of a “scientist;” rather, his works dealt with a much more pressing issue of his time period: religion and its doctrine. He used Aristotelian logic to breakdown controversial topics, such as Original Sin, and gave them a more practical, updated explanation. His true achievement was in giving individuals the power (or motive) to come to their own knowledgeable conclusions on such topics (the purpose of his book Sic et non). However, through all this, Abelard remained an advocate of both religion, to which he was intimately involved with, and logic. In fact, his purpose was to employ logic to aid the Church and, in a sense, protect it from its enemies.

According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, a scientist is a person learned in a system or method of reconciling practical ends with scientific laws. So, does Peter Abelard fit this description? The answer is yes. Not only is he a supporter or science and rational thought, he uses and urges other to use this rationality to reason as an individual, not a collective. His works set out to mediate the ongoing conflict between religion (Christianity) and logic; although the conflict wouldn’t slow down after him.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T19:59:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard did much for the support of science but did not actually contribute much to science. Despite this, he can still be considered a great scientist because of his devotion to teaching philosophy and critical thinking even when applied to theology. One of his more popular books was called Sic et Non which basically harvested a bunch of contradictory quotes from clergymen and other church officials and even the bible. He would then have his students debate and argue amongst themselves and try to find a way to solve these apparent contradictions via logic. This was a sort of first shot in which established church doctrine was fair game for everybody to interpret and that it was not immune to reason. Mr. Abelard was quite adamant about his views and did not back down even though the Church became angered. It was this first step that eventually would start to give rise to ever more people questioning the Church. Peter Abelard translated some works into Latin and was very much against relying on faith alone to explain things. In the spirit of Sic et Non, he tried to encourage others to not rely on faith and even debated such people. It is in this regard, and addition to the various works he translated that he can be considered a great scientist. He was a strong proponent of reason over blind faith and did not back down to the Church (though he did admit trying to defend Christianity through the use of logic). Regardless, even though he did not do any actual science, he defended and developed some of the basic tenants of reason over faith that is the hallmark of any scientist.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T19:51:00.000-05:00

For Peter Abelard to be considered a "great" scientist, one must look deeper into his non-scientific scholarly appitudes. If we are to consider science only to be a critical and objective study of "anything" then Peter Abelard as a scientist would fit this broad definition. As science looks deeper into the hows and whys that plague the deepest corner's of man's mind, one could argue that Abelard using logic and reasoning did just that with the science of religion. Abelard was a master at using logical reasoning to try explain and justify difficult positions Church doctrine and faith. In many senses, Abelard was one of the first open-minded beings that questioned the reasonings of the Church in that the Church leaders were forced to take note. The Church was the greatest supporter of science insofar as it could lead it's reasonings continuous suppor of the Church. Questioning its doctrines is the bladed edge that even later the pioneers of science would also walk and Peter Abelard did. A "Great" scientist not only keeps an open mind, but uses reasoning, logic, to explore and exploit greater avenues of learning. A "great" scienctist also presents abstractions and higher thought to his/her students to promote a new intellectual level of learning. In this, Abelard succeeds and blazens a trail of new thought and reasoning.

Heather Novak

Peter Abelard: A true scientist?

2006-11-05T19:48:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard (ca. 1079-ca. 1142) was not a scientist but a famous teacher who is considered one of the greatest thinkers and science supporters of medieval times .But because he did not make any real advances in practical science doesn't mean that he isn't considered a "scientist". Peter Abelard was a man that like scientist defended his works especially the theological and philosophical ones.Like science his students had to use reason and logic to answer many of the questions especially those that he wrote in a book for students called the Sic et non that contained opinions of the church fathers on a series of theological questions. Many of his contemporaries thought that he was rebelling against the church because of this book when he was truly kinda defending it. He was a man that was just trying to answer and understand very complicated questions that people probably were thinking about but never dared question publicly.

Peter Abelard, The Great Scientist

2006-11-05T18:01:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard questioned the theological doctrine within his teachings. He taught his students to form conclusions of their own through a series of conflicting arguments and conclude, with a logical answer, the real or perceived truths. Although he himself did not always take a stand he did defend his own works against his enemies, to many Abelard seemed to denounce the teachings of the bible when in fact he defended them, and contributed historically to a revival of learning throughout the Middle Ages. He was condemned twice by the Catholic authorities but managed to become a renound master for students wanting to learn. And it was Abelard’s questions concerning faith and reason, and their link that makes him a “great scientist” in his day.

Sources:http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01036b.htm

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T15:06:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard was born in 1079 and died in 1142. Abelard was best known for his book Sic et non, which means “Yes and No” or “Pro and Con”. In this book Abelard wrote on conflicting opinions of reason vs. faith. There were many questions that he raised to answer the questions of reason vs. faith. Even though Abelard did not invent anything, he was still considered a “great scientist” because of his knowledge in theology. He was tired of everyone taking the word of the church, so he introduced another word, reason, philosophy. He wrote on each side and let people make there own decision.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T15:03:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard was a great thinker and supporter of science of his time. He was not a true scientist, however. Peter Abelard was more of a philosopher and teacher. In fact, he was so enthusiastic in his teaching and strict in his beliefs (mixed with a little bit of vanity) he was kicked out of just about every school or monastery he taught in. This was for arguing or harassing the teachers and students, not willing to compromise on any beliefs with anyone. He used science to prove religious beliefs. By invoking true thought of his students and using scientific ideas of Aristotle and his commentators, he meant to show that the beliefs of the Church were correct. He did not mean at all to say that the beliefs were false, as some of his enemies took this to be. So, while he never actually made any scientific advancements, he attempted to unite scientific and religious learning through philosophy. Since the Church tried to cover up his ideas, he was not known as a great philosopher until later on. However, he is known today as preserving knowledge and encouraging scientific thought through the Middle Ages, making it accessible to us now.

My information came from:

http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01036b.htm

Reason for a scientist

2006-11-05T14:52:00.000-05:00

When I think of the term “great scientist” I think of a person whom pushes the boundaries farther than anyone else has ever gone in order to produce something completely new. In most terms, a scientist is making a new contraption or discovering something no one has before, but with the definition above, it could just mean a new way of thinking. That is exactly what Peter Abelard did.

Abelard was a harsh student and teacher in many schools of Northern France. He was a well known defender of theological positions considered dangerous and condemned twice by religious authorities. However, he was still able to write his well known book, Sic et non. Translated to Yes and No or Pro and Con, this book served as a source for students. It consisted of conflicted opinions to problems which then had become objects of philosophical investigation.

In his young adulthood, Abelard was attending Anselm of Laon’s classes. He found them extremely boring and ended up not attending classes. When that happened, his classmates challenged him to give his own lecture on an obscure prophecy of Ezekiel which no previous commentator had been able to fathom. Abelard was able to produce an outstanding interpretation that the students asked for more. With each lecture, the attendance rate grew and grew.

In conclusion, Peter Abelard did not make a new machine, he did not discover anything new, he simple expressed his new way of thinking. He pushed all boundaries left by those before him and in the end was praised by many students. By pushing the boundaries, Abelard can be considered a “great scientist."

Foundations in Logic and Reason: Peter Abelard's contribution

2006-11-05T14:42:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard is considered one of the greatest scientific minds of the Middle Ages, despite not being a scientist himself nor contributing directly to the sciences. How is this possible? Its possible because he was one of the foremost leaders in thought during his lifetime. He, like his predecessor Anselm of Laon, sought to determine whether theological works could be proved and analyzed using logic and reason, or if they had to be handled through other methods. He sought to use logic and reason to analyze theology, because if he could, he would be better armed against anyone who wished to disprove or dispute theological works. They would attack with reason or logic, and if he could defend likewise, his arguments would be much more powerful than if he used the argument “its true because the Bible says so.” However, his ideas were considered dangerous and potentially heretical by many church officials, and he was twice condemned for his works.

Abelard's well-known work, “Sic et Non” (Yes and No, or Pro and Con), was a compilation of conflicting accounts between theological works and statements given by various church officials of varying ranks. This book was used by Abelard to teach his students to look at all sides of any situation, and to come to an understanding of the whole situation. The students were called to use logic and reason to find a solution to the conflicting situation that would satisfy both the written and spoken accounts. However, many church officials saw this as him attacking the church, showing off weaknesses he had found, rather than educating a new breed of defenders who would use educated arguments, rather than blind devotion and fanaticism. He strove to teach his students, who came from all parts of Europe, to “know the truth behind religion, rather than just believing.”

The reason Peter Abelard is considered one of the great supporters of medieval science and one of the greatest minds of the Middle Ages is because he inspired the use of logic and reason in a new generation of thinkers. He was willing to put his own reputation and his standing within the church on the line to put the idea that religion could be proved without itself, through reason and logical thinking. By bringing forth reason and logic, he paved the way for future scientists to use them as tools in the years to come. While not a scientist himself, he did give scientists the tools they would need in the future.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T13:10:00.000-05:00

Abelard did not produce many practical scientific achievements he did manage to further science by analyzing the current matters and doctrines. He managed to produce several works that explained Christian theory and laws in a practical manner and in a way that took a scientific method into account.Considered a great scientist by many, Abelard, was a great thinker and debater. His support of science despite his connections to the church, Abelard searched for real world answers for everyday problems. Unwilling to accept doctrines on blind faith, he critically examined each piece of literary works that he, as an abbot, was expected to follow. In addition he focused on the hot topics of the time. Subjects that were considered the core of education and thereby necessary for everyday life. Considered a loose cannon his sharp wit managed to get him into trouble on all ends.Although he did not produce any practical achievements or new theories to be entwined into science, he was a great scientist because he called into question those things that had not been sufficiently explained. Scientists need proof before belief and because so much of Abelard’s life was focused around huge ideas with no evidence to support them, he took it upon himself to answer questions that no one else would.

Peter Abelard: Reason vs Faith

2006-11-05T13:09:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard may not have invented any scientific contraptions or developed a groundbreaking concept, but he is still considered are great scientific thinker. In my opinion, the contribution that made Abelard so renowned was the fact that he kept science “alive” in a time when people could have easily forgotten about the older revelations and scientist. Questioning ideas in his book, Sic et non, encouraged readers to examine both perspectives of a matter so it could help them form their own opinions which leads to a higher degree of intellectual cognition. During this particular time period, faith and reason were two separate entities, I believe Abelard lectured that faith and reason could work parallel to each other. In faith there should be some reason; and sometimes reason could be left to faith. He helped people think outside the realm of “spontaneous generation”, per se. Abelard taught that one could combine faith and reason to explain science. He truly showed people that there is life not necessarily linked to the church and it was acceptable to form opinions based on rationale.

This sort of thinking was the reason for Abelard’s unpopularity; what made the scenario “worse” was the fact that he spread the word through his writing and lectures which opened a new world for scholars who had been taught that questioning was sacrilegious. Unfortunately Abelard’s inquiries were misunderstood and he was preserved as unchristian; outsiders believed that he was questioning God.

The reason why Peter Abelard’s ideas have been continuously studied can be contributed to his revolutionary idea: educate the masses and let them decide. Abelard knew that people had potential so he gave them credit for their thoughts. Here people were being rewarded for having a mind of their own.

Peter the Scientist

2006-11-05T12:50:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard was born in a century of high Christian morale created from the holy war with the infidels, and during which he tried to support the church as much as he could through helping individuals understand more about themselves and how they can control their lives outside of the church’s control through reason. Abelard’s rationality and Aristotelian philosophies developed centuries before Johannes Guttenberg was able to spread enlightenment reason through the use of his printing press.

He used reason to confront and conquer questions that have been boggled for centuries before and he became known as a scientist of thinking because of his dedication to Aristotelian knowledge and problems present in his day. He is sometimes referred to as a great scientist of his day because of his contributions to these problems and how he reinvented a way to solve difficult problems with reason.

It was through this science Peter Abelard sparked a new revolution of thinking which led to the depletion of Catholic dominance over all citizens during and after the middle ages.

Assignment 5 - Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T12:32:00.000-05:00

The question of what makes a true scientist is a tough one to define. Is the
true scientist the one that sees himself stuck in a lab doing several experiments
in hope that one will work or is it the one that carefully studies all sides of
things and compiles all of his work into volumes so that others can use it and
learn from it? As a soon to be scientist myself, I believe the second to be of
most importance. It's easy to lock yourself inside a laboratory and carry out
thousands of experiments that you don't know if will work. It takes a true
dedicated scientist to analyze both sides of things, and bring up several
contradicting points that might be of crucial importance to experiments that will
be carried out by others. This is exactly what Peter Abelard created with his book
Sic et Non. The several contradicting views and ideas gave room for discussion,
which in science, is of extreme importance. Even today, several classes of
scientists have what are called Seminars, which can be analogous to Abelard's
discussion classes, in which discussions about a specific topic are carried out and
several contradicting and pro ideas are pointed out. "The purpose of the book was
to show students a wide range of alternative arguments, to help them decide by close
analysis which disagreements among the authorities were real and which were only
apparent, and to encourage them to reconcile opposing positions." What better
definition of a true researcher can be made? Any good scientist, before beginning
any sort of experimentation, is expected to do extensive research in all areas
pertaining his project. This is exactly what Abelard did. He wasn't against the
church, he was just pro logic and his project was teaching his young students how
to rationalize about things, not to automatically criticize and punish. There is
nothing more gratifying to a scientist to see his students question previously
published work and go on their own to make their own conclusions and experiments.
Another aspect of Abelard that makes him a true scientist is his thirst for
knowledge, his audacity, and the fact that he knew he was "all that". It's easy for
me to pin-point another great scientist in history that was exactly like this:
Linus Pauling. Pauling was arrogant, his wit was beyond control, yet, everyone knew
how amazing he was, including himself. Peter Abelard followed these same footsteps.
He knew the power his words contained and wasn't afraid to use them. One particular
historian wrote, "The important point is that Abelard wished to reveal himself to
the world as a unique individual whose biography could not be confused with anyone
else's." Which scientist wants to be forgotten and have his works buried deep into
the obscure corners of a library? None. This is exactly what Abelard wanted to
avoid and he managed to accomplish it. With this and the other points above in mind,
Abelard can still be considered a "true" scientist.

Peter Abelard

2006-11-05T12:15:00.000-05:00

Peter Abelard spent his life as a curious and versatile scholar who wrote works concerned with logic, philosophy of language, metaphysics and philosophy of mind. Many of his works went against believed scientific theories. Even though he was not a scientist, he was a remarkably well rounded scholar; his works helped the scientific community because they spoke in logical terms. After all logical thought is the essence of scientific theory.

In his works Abelard preferred reductive and material explanations whenever possible. He didn't agree with the metaphysical excesses of his predecessors and contemporaries.

His thesis that universals are nothing but words created discussion in the scientific world. He wrote the thought that universals were one and the same and theorized that universals were present in both his and Socrates’ works. Abelard then points out that the same thing, animal, will be simultaneously rational and irrational because it covers both species.

When challenged that rationality and irrationality are not actually present in the same thing Abelard claimed that contraries are present in Socrates and an ass. In other words, each is basically an animal and therefore both rational and irrational.

Even though Abelard was not actually a scientist he can be considered a great scientist because of his philosophy of the world. He maintained that everything in the world apart from God and angels is either, form, matter or a composite of form and matter. He was also known as the greatest logician since Antiquity.

So, even though he was not officially a scientist, he provided differing ideas that brought new enlightenment to the scientific community.

Assignment #5

2006-10-30T09:50:00.000-05:00

This is the newest assignment, but pay attention, there is a twist this time. No one can post an answer until Sunday, November 5th. All answers must be posted between noon and midnight. That doesn't mean you can't write an answer before hand, but you can't post an answer until between the listed times. The reason for that restriction is that everyone will be answering the same question. The answer doesn't not have to be particularly long, and you are limited to 500 words. So think about what you are going to write, and just answer the question.

The question:

Peter Abelard is one of the greatest medieval thinkers. He is also perhaps one of the greatest medieval supporters of science, even though he was not himself a scientist nor did he make any real advances in practical science. In your answer, why do you think that Abelard could still be considered a "great scientist"?

Material for the answer can be found in both the textbook and in Aristotle's Children.

Abu Ma'shar

2006-10-29T00:51:00.000-04:00

Abu Ma'shar, full name Abu Ma'shar Ja'far ibn Muhammad ibn 'Umar al-Balkhi, lived from 787 to 886. He was a great Islamic astronomer whose texts were in Latin and Arabic. He wrote a text concerning the solar revolutions and was used by many scholars after him as a basis for astrology and astronomy, especially throughout the Middle Ages. He was a follower of Messahala. He used his astrological knowledge to figure out the historically accurate dates and times of biblical events such as the Flood and from this date continues with his astrological calendar. He considered the nature of time and division concerning a degree’s movement along the equator. How periods of time are controlled by the constellations, what order the constellations move and for how long they exist.

Links:http://www.new-library.com/zoller/features/rz-article-abumashar.shtml

Ibn Al-Haitham

2006-10-27T19:29:00.000-04:00

Abu Ali Al-Hasan Ibn Al-Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham lived in Egypt around 1000 c.e. He is considered by many to be the father of modern optics, doing extensive research into reflection and refraction, as well as developing a more modern theory of the operation of the human eye. He was one of the first to postulate that rays entered the eyes, as opposed to emmanating from them as the Greeks believed. The latinised translation of his work The Optics was and is very influential to Western science.

http://www.muslimheritage.com/day_life/default.cfm?ArticleID=163&Oldpage=1
http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/haitham.html

Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya Al-Zarqali of Andalusia

2006-10-25T17:24:00.000-04:00

Al-Zarqali lived in Toledo in Spain from 1028 to 1087. In the West he was known as Azarchel. He was the leader of the astronomical world. He wrote the Toledan Tables, in which he corrected Ptolemy and Al-Khwarizmi. He corrected Ptolemy's length of the Mediterranean Sea of 62 degrees to the much more correct 42 degrees. He also proved that the aphelion moves relative to the stars at 12.04 seconds per year (the modern calculation was 11.8 seconds per year). He also invented a type of "universal astrolabe" that didn't depend on the observer's position on the globe, called a Safihah. He is quoted by Copernicus. There is also a feature on the Moon named after him. His works are still very valid, because his calculations were so close to correct. His works shaped what we know about astronomy and the rotations of the planets.

Here is a picture of Azarchel:

http://www.cuadernosdehistoria.org/menu2/alandalus2/026_x009.jpg

http://www.how.org.tw/photo/alzarqali.gif

Here is the moon feature named after him:

http://img474.imageshack.us/img474/8421/triopeq1ib.jpg

Here is my link to the information about him:

http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/zarqali.html

Averroes

2006-10-25T13:03:00.000-04:00

Abu'l Waleed Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Rushd, known as Averroes was a great Muslim contributor to science and technology. He was born in 1128 AD in Cordova located in what is now Spain. The caliph of Morocco, Abu Yaqub appointed him as his physician and called him to Morocco where he would eventually die.

Averroes contributions were his on philosophy, logic, music, and jurisprudence. However, Averroes famous for his commentaries and translations of aristotle’s work. Very few of Aristotle’s work existed in Europe which lead it to be forgotten. Because of Averroes work, the legacy of Aristotle was recovered in the west. Averroes work would last over 3 decades.

Averroes tried to consolidate Aristotle’s work and the system of thought of islam by claming that there are different ways of reaching the same truth. Ultimately he just managed to revive Aristotle’s works which are invalid.

http://facweb.bcc.ctc.edu/wpayne/averroes_files/image002.jpg Image of his statue.

Ibn Rushd

2006-10-25T13:00:00.000-04:00

Sorry this was late!!

Abu'l Waleed Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Rushd, was born in approximately 1128 in Codova. In the West he was known as Averroes. His contributed to the world through philosophy, Islamic Law, mathematics and medicine. In class we talked about his major contribution of translating Aristotles works with commentaries, however he did more than just that. He also became the head physician for the Caliph of Morocco in place of Ibn Tufail. His physician work seems to be outdated now, however, his philosophical work lasted much longer. The book, Tuhafut al-Tuhafut, had many critics but at the same time influenced much of European thought until the beginning of modern Philosophy and experimental science.

An image of Averroes can be found at the link below.

http://www.famousmuslims.com/IBN%20RUSHD.htm

Abul Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas al-Zahravi

2006-10-25T12:53:00.000-04:00

Abul Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas al-Zahravi (Abulcasis), born in 936 C.E. in Zahra, became one of the world's greatest surgeons, and died in 1013 C.E.

Abulcasis is known for his famous Medical Encyclopedia called Al-Tasrif, which included thirty volumes covering most areas of medical science. Of these, the most important volumes were on surgery, which describes surgical treatment based on operations performed by him, which included cauterization (which he used to cure diseases after applying it during more than 50 surgery), surgery of eye, ear and throat, removal of stone from the bladder, and dissection of animals. Abulcasis invented three notable surgical instruments, (1) an instrument for an internal examination of the ear, (2) an instrument for inspecting the urethra, and (3) and an instrument for removing foreign bodies from the throat.

Abulcasis surpassed Galen's work on the body and achieved far greater results through surgery and dissecton of animals.

http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/el_zahrawi/

Mash a' allah ibn Athari

2006-10-25T08:59:00.000-04:00

This scientist is commonly named in latin as Messala or Messahalla. He is of Jewish descent and a well known astrologer and astronomer of his time. Many many know his name from one of our moon's craters also called Messala. The importance of this man comes in the founding of Baghdad. He is one of the original founders who helped found Baghdad by an electional horoscope. It would seem that his position in the world at this time was to create influence by horoscopic astrology. Messala has written several works, one of which is De scientia motus orbis which has been translated to latin. Many of his works do not exist now, but at one time numbered twenty. His ideas about Astrology still exist through horoscopic predictives. With astrology comes skepticism and modern day beliefs do not currently support 100 % the ideas of the horoscope.

Heather Novak

Al-Farghani

2006-10-25T05:06:00.000-04:00

Al-Farghani write “Elements of Astronomy” sometime between 833 and 857. This was a book on celestial motion that was later translated into Latin in the 12^th century and influenced European astronomy. Al-Farghani was a member of the House of Wisdom. While receiving patronage of al Mamun, he oversaw a team of scientists who together determined the earth’s diameter to be 6,500 miles. His estimate for the diameter of earth is off from today’s accepted value of 7,926 miles so it is not considered valid. He also wrote a treatise on the mathematical theory behind the astrolabe. He tried his hand at engineering when he supervised the construction of the Great Nilometer, a canal. Unfortunately he was incompetent and made the beginning of the canal deeper than the rest so the canal was unusable unless the water level in the Tigris was high. There is also a small lunar impact crater, Alfraganus, named after him. He died in Egypt.

Picture

Abu Marwan Abd Al-Malik ibn Zuhr

2006-10-25T01:18:00.000-04:00

Abu Marwan Abd Al-Malik ibn Zuhr (1091-1161)

Also known as Avenzoar to the West, ibn Zuhr was considered probably one of the greatest Islamic physicians of his time. Born in Seville, Spain and spending the majority of his life there, he held many positions in his life. Contrary to most scientists of the time, he solely focused on medicine as his topic of study, which allowed him to bring greater contributions into the field of medicine. Similar to Galen, he was an expert in observing subjects and dissections, although ibn Zuhr was actually capable of dissecting dead human bodies, contrary to Galen's works with animal bodies. Also, ibn Zuhr wrote many books that were translated into Latin and Hebrew, only 3 of which have survived.

Because his works remained a major reference on medicine and the human body until around the 18th century, ibn Zuhr's major contributions to this field are immense. His most major contribution by far can be considered his work with pathology - defining and treating the diseases that afflicted human beings. His immense detail in his writings and studies provide what could be considered a reference similar to that of Galen's works, respected in the completeness of the subject matter. Three of his works have survived to this day, which include: "The Book of Simplification concerning Therapeutics and Diet", a book heavy in pathology as well as therapy; "The Book of the Middle Course concerning the Reformation of Souls and the Bodies"; and "Book on Foodstuffs". What sets ibn Zuhr apart from many scientists of the Middle Ages is his focus on one particular subject and the pursuit of his own knowledge, rather than simply re-copying, translating, and/or critiquing works of his predecessors. Many of his contributions in pathology are still valid today because of their empirical nature. Majority of his work is in the identification and classification of certain diseases, which opened the way for treatment of diseases in the future. His range of pathology is almost limitless, from internal to external diseases, which are still valid today, only having been built upon by those who came after him.

Here is a picture of ibn Zuhr:
http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/a-images/zu85.jpg

And my references:
http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/zuhr.html
http://www.isesco.org.ma/pub/Eng/Architects/P28.htm

Leonardo of Pisa, Fibonacci

2006-10-25T00:13:00.000-04:00

Leonardo of Pisa, or Fibonacci(1175-1250) was an Italian Mathematician born in Pisa. He was one of the first to introduce the Hindu-Arabic numerial system of 10 digits 1-0 to the Eurpoean world. He explained addition, subtraction and decimal position as well as explaining the rules or "Algorithms" for other mathematical operations. He independantly created a set of numbers known as a Fibonacci Series, that would be something like 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 which result from the addition of the two previous numbers in the series (assuming you start with 1 and 2 in this case). It is still used, valid and taught. There are still uses for both algorithms in math and computer science and uses for the Fibonacci Series [or the use of (n-1)+(n-2)=n]. It is known that he studied and lived in the Arabic world for at least parts of his life.

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Fibonacci.html

Ibno Al-Thahabi

2006-10-25T00:08:00.000-04:00

Abu Mohammed Abdellah Ibn Mohammed Al-Azdi, aka, Ibno Al-Thahabi, was an Arab physician who worked at the end of the first millennium, A.D., dying in 1033. He was born in Oman and eventually settled in Valencia, Spain. Before reaching Spain, he would work in Basra, Iraq; Persia (Iran); and Jerusalem. He studied under two established Persian physicians, Al-Biruni and Ibn Sina.

His greatest contribution was a medical encyclopedia believed to be among the first of its kind organized alphabetically. The title of the book is Kitab Al-Ma'a, or "The Book of Water." The name was selected because water (al-ma'a) is the first word in the book. Beyond being a 900-page compilation of medical topics, Al-Thahabi would be present his own ideas about the operation of organs. For example, he postulated that the eyes work by the pupils capturing left and right visions that are sent through nerves to the brain, where they are compiled into a single image. This is consistent with current knowledge.

Source that contains image of referenced book:
http://www.muslimheritage.com/day_life/default.cfm?ArticleID=330&Oldpage=1

Al-Jazari

2006-10-24T23:43:00.000-04:00

Al-Jazari

Al-Jazari was the most outstanding mechanical engineer of his time. His full name was Badi Al-Zaman Abuli-Ezz Ibn Ismail Ibn Al-Razzaz Al-Jazari. He lived in Turkey around the 12^th century AD. In 1206, Al-Jazari published a detailed book on theoretical and practical mechanics. His book was very valuable because of its minute detail in its instructions for design, manufacture and assembly of machines. Although you will find more pictures of his drawings than of him, you can find a painting of Al-Jazari .

One of his greatest category of inventions were machines for raising water from deep wells under the desert and high plains. He excelled over his competitors by developing water raising machines with higher output than traditional ones. One such machine was located on the River Yazid in Damascus (13th century) and is thought to have supplied the needs of a nearby hospital. Another water machine was an intricate mechanism involving gears and a crank. This is the first known instance of the use of a crank as part of a machine. The earliest appearance in Europe of a crank as part of a machine occured in the fifteenth century. Here are a few drawings of these machines.

Electricity, coal, fossil fuels and high tech hydraulics now move water over all the globe. And although the machines are now rarely used, some fine examples can still be seen, notably on the River Orontes at Hama in Syria.

Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Muadh Al-Jayyani

2006-10-24T23:40:00.000-04:00

Al-Jayyani was born in 989 AD in Cordoba, Spain and died around 1079 in Jaen, Andalusia. He was a famous mathematician that wrote commentaries about Euclid’s Elements and he also studied astronomy. In math he wrote a work called On ratio that defended Euclid and he hoped that this work would clear up some of the things that Euclid did not state clearly. He stated that there are five magnitudes in the field of geometry which are line, number, solid, surface and angle. Another important work of his was the The Book of Unknown Arcs of a Sphere. This was the first work that dealt with spherical trigonometry. In the book he lays out how to figure out right-handed triangles when all the sides are not known. Also he gives the general law of sines which is a/sinA=b/sinB=c/sinC, and the solution of a spherical triangle using a polar triangle. All of these descriptions are still used today. In astronomy he discovered that twilight starts in the morning when the sun is 18 degrees below the horizon and twilight ends at night again when the sun is 18 degrees below the horizon. Today this is known as astronomical twilight and astronomers use it to gauge the when it starts to become dark enough or too bright to take data. From this position after the sun sets to when it rises to this position the sun doesn't contribute any sky illumination. Also he wrote about and gave data to help calculate when to pray and what direction to pray by using the day, calendar, new moon and eclipses. This was written about in his book Tabulae Jahen. Finally he wrote horoscopes that relied heavily ob Hindu sources. There were no pictures of him and there is confusion about who this really was since there might have been two Al-Jayyani's at this time. It is widely accepted that the scholar and mathematician that go by this name is the same person but this means that he would have had to live well into his 90's and still be writing since he wrote about an eclipse that happened in 1079.

Resources:

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Al-Jayyani.html
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/RST_defs.html

Trotula of Salerno

2006-10-24T22:14:00.000-04:00

Salerno, Italy was famous for having the first med school during the 11th century. The school even admitted women into its programs. Trotula was both a physician and an instructor at the School of Salerno. Her full name was Trotula di Ruggiero and she was considered the world's first gynecologist. She specialized in obstetrics, gynecology, cosmetics and skin disease. Her most famous medical work was Passionibus Mulierum Curandorum (The Diseases of Women). Most of her work advices women on such issues as conception, menstruation, pregnancy, C-sections, and childbirth. She advises for the use of herbal remedies, balanced diets, regular exercise, and cleanliness.

http://departments.kings.edu/womens_history/trotula.html

Picture not available

Hunayn Ibn Ishaq al-‘Ibadi

2006-10-24T22:07:00.000-04:00

Hunayn Ibn Ishaq al-‘Ibadi (approx 809AD - 873AD) was an ancient Islamic leading translator in the House of Wisdom. He was fluent in Greek and translated into Arabic many of the great works of medicine and mathematics. Hunayn was born in Hira and was raised in a Syrian Christian church. He became educated in language, learning Arabic and Syric in Basra. He went to Baghdad to study medicine but fell out with the teacher and went to Alexandria and learned Greek. He returned to Baghdad where he became a well renowned translator. His contribution to science was to bring Greek thought to the Islamic world. His translations were read in Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia. He is most well known for his translations of Aristotle and Plato. Hunayn also had an influence on the medical philosophy of the time collaborating with other scholars in the House of Wisdom. The contribution Hunayn made is still valid today as all translators are. He did not have specific origional theories that could be disputed rather just influenced the work of others. In the link there are pictures of beautiful work done by Hunayn. There were no pictures of him that I could find.

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/medieval/articella.html

Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Ahmad ibn Yunus al-Sadafi

2006-10-24T19:43:00.000-04:00

Little is actually known about Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Ahmad ibn Yunus al-Sadafi, or Ibn Yunus’s childhood, but it is known that he grew up during the period of military conquest in Egypt during the late 9th and early 10th centuries. Ibn Yunus was a genius scientist that lived in the reign of Aziz Billah and Hakim Bi-Amr-illah. Ibn Yunus is famed for his astronomical observations and astrologer but is most famous for his many trigonometrical and astronomical tables. Ibn Yunus invented the Pendulum which in led to the measurement of time by its oscillations. His invention is still considered valid today and is used in many applications besides timekeeping including gravimetry, seismology, and schuler tuning.

Sources:
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Yunus.html
http://www.geocities.com/mutmainaa/history/muslim_inventors.html

Al-Asmai

2006-10-24T18:23:00.000-04:00

Al-Asmai was the first scientist from Islam to make contributions to the fields of Zoology, Botany, and Animal Husbandry. His full name is Abdul Malik Ibn al-Quraib al-Asmai and he was born in Basra, in what is modern day Iraq. He was born there in 740, and he died there as well in 828. He was a disciple of Amr ibn al'ala and was a tutor to Harun Rashid's son in his later days.
His main works were on the horse (Kitab al-Khail) and the camel (Kitab al-Ibil), which is not surprising since most early arabic zoology (seventh and eigth century) was centered on these two animals. In addition to his work in zoology, he also did classification of plants. Also, he wrote an indepth book on human anatomy, called the Kitab Khalq al-Insan (on the making of man). This book in particular stands out, since it showed great knowledge of the subject for the time. It also showed that he had an expertise in dissections.
The final of the three sciences listed as his contributions, Animal Husbandry, I feel needs explanation. It is the science of breeding and raising livestock and animals. His contributions in this field were to the raising and breeding of camels and horses, which as formentioned are very important to the Arabic world at the time.
There isn't a great deal of information on his work relevance to modern theory, however his book on anatomy was correct for the most part. There were only a few misconceptions that he came to in his writings. As for his works on animals, there is little information, but there is no mention of him being completly wrong on any of his works.
There were no pictures that were of Al-Asmai or his work.
Sources:
http://www.muslimheritage.com/timeline/chronology.cfm
http://www.salaam.co.uk/knowledge/biography/viewentry.php?id=397
http://www.muslimtents.com/almarja/asmai.html

Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari

2006-10-24T17:16:00.000-04:00

Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari is from Tabaristan and lived from 838 to 870 A.D. He is a famous physician that is well known for his works on medicine. He wrote the treastiese Firdous al-Hikmat in which he outlined general principles of medicine, a comprehensive account of muscular disease, plans for diet and many other diseases that affected the liver, spleet and intestines. He is also known for describing flavor, taste and color and addressing drugs and poision. In 850 AD, he wrote a medical encyclopedia which he encorporated all brances of medical science along with soology, astronomy, and pshychology.
His work is still admired today, beucase it was the basis of medicine. He is credited with writing the first medical encyclopedia which was the basis for medical compelations.

There are no images of his works, but a picture of him can be found at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Sahl_Rabban_al-Tabari

Omar Al-Khayyam

2006-10-24T10:12:00.000-04:00

Omar Al-Khayyam (aka Ghiyath al-Din Abdul Omar Ibn Ibrahim Al-Khayyam) lived from around 1044-1124 AD in the city of Nishapur, the provincial capital of Khurassan which is now Iran. Omar was a mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, physician, as well as a poet. He is considered Persian, but he might have belonged to the Khayyami Arab tribe that settled in Persia. Unlike many at the time, Omar did not work for the king. He led a calm life in his search for knowledge, and he enjoyed traveling to other learning centers such as Isphahan in order to exchange his ideas with other scientists.
Omar's greatest contributions were done in the field of Algebra. He classified most algebraic equations and offered solutions for many of them including cubic equations. His book "Maqalat fi al-Jabr wa al-Muqabila" is considered one of the greatest works on algebra and played a major role in its further development. Omar is also considered the first to explain the binomial theorem and determine binomial coefficients. He also made contributions to the theory of parallel lines.
In 1074, the Saljuq Sultan (Malikshah Jalal al-Din) requested Omar create a correct solar calendar. Omar's calendar was named Al-Tarikh-al-Jalali and it had an error of one day in 3770 years.
Omar's work remained the authority in the area until Descartes. His history as a scientist is somewhat obscured by his popularity as a poet, but his work is extremely valuable, nonetheless.

Resources:
http://www.islamonline.com/cgi-bin/news_service/profile_story.asp?service_id=934
http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/KHAYYAM.html

Image of Omar:
http://www.islamonline.com/cgi-bin/news_service/pics/934.jpg

al-Razi

2006-10-23T22:46:00.000-04:00

al-Razi was born around 865AD in the town of Rayy and died in 925AD. It seems that al-Razi is considered one of the more impactful of the Islamic scholars. I choose him simply out of curiosity; I play a game called Civilization 4 and always obtain a 'great scientist' named al-Razi, so I figured he must have some sort of important contributions. al-Razi was extremely well versed in Greek medicine and made contributions to the diagnosis of several diseases, such as small pox. His discription of small pox was used up until the early 20th century! In some ways he also started to criticize some of Galen's views on medicine, but still respected him immensely. I would say that one of his greatest contributions was to write a book on how to treat medical conditions for the general public (similar to first-aid books today). This would come quite handy for people who were poor or far away from doctors and help promote healthy living habits. The name of his book was Man la Yahduruhu Al-Tabib. Since this genre of books is still published today, in that aspect, his contribution in this area is still valid. First-aid books are recommended for all and can prove life-saving sometimes, and often may contain information on treating common ailments such as headaches.

This is by no means his only contribution to medicine, and indeed he made discoveries in other areas too, such as discovering sulfuric acid (well, credited with it).

Image of al-Razi
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Rhazes.jpg

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Razi
http://www.islamset.com/heritage/pharmacy/4th&10th.html

Abd-al-Rahman Al Sufi

2006-10-23T22:25:00.000-04:00

Abd al-Rahman Al Sufi, known in the West as Azophi, was one of the most outstanding practical astronomers of the Middle Ages. He lived at the court of the Emire Adud ad-Daula in Isfahan (Persia) in 903 to 986. He worked on updating many of the Greek astronomical works studies especially one from the Almagest of Ptolemy. He estimated the brightness and magnitudes of many stars. He classified many new constellations by relating Greek names with early traditional Arabic names. For example the Heavenly Twins which is shown in a picture below. He drew star maps from the perspective of earth as well as from outside of the celestial globe. He found the Large Magellanic Cloud. A lot of his constellations are still used today. He also has many descriptions of things which relate to many other things in space. For example he calls an area a "Little Cloud" which now known to be Andromeda Galaxy M31 today. He wrote many of his findings in a number of books.

Below is a picture of him.
http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic/persons/pic_pers/alsufi.jpg

Here is a picture of the Heavenly Twins
http://www.kolahstudio.com/images/artcltwins2.jpg

Abu Abdullah Al-Battani

2006-10-23T00:58:00.000-04:00

Abu Abdullah Al-Battani was from a state in Hurran known as Battan around 858 A.D. He did research for 42 years in astronomy, math, and astrology until his death in 929 A.D. He made several contributions and discoveries in astronomy and was known as one of the most prominent astronomers in Islamic history. His greatest contribution was the discovery of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes, and 24 seconds. This discovery is still valid because of how close it is to the current estimates. His work in astronomy was extremely influential in Europe till the Renaissance, and his original discoveries were important in the development of these scientific fields.
Al-Battani made several other astronomical discoveries, all of which were unbelievably accurate. He also contributed to mathematics and wrote several books on astronomy and trigonometry.

Image of Abu Abdullah Al-Battani:
http://www.islamonline.com/cgi-bin/news_service/profile_story.asp?service_id=971

Thabit ibn Qurrah ibn Marwan al-Harrani (Thebit)

2006-10-22T16:36:00.000-04:00

Thebit, as this Islamic scientist was known in the West, was a great contributor to the fields of mechanics, mathematics, astronomy and geometry. He was born in 836 CE in what is today modern Turkey, however; Thebit spent most of his life in Baghdad and died there in 901 CE. Some reports say that Thebit officially worked as a money changer. However, he was introduced to the Abbasid Caliphs, made court astrologer, and became a member of Muhammad Ibn Musa Ibn Shakir's great mathematical and scientific team.

Thebit's work with mathematics was substantial. He used arithmetic to break apart a cone into the parabola and the ellispe. Furthermore, he developed an algorithms to calculate the area and volume of solid bodies. In the field of astronomy, Thebit added a ninth sphere to the Ptolemaic universe. Additionally, he examined previous work done by Euclid and offered his own suggestions. In the "Trepidation of Equinoxes", Thebit's theorems were investigated and criticized by other scientists. Tycho Brache also made use of Thebit's work. These "references" by later figures, clearly demonstrate the value of Thebit's influence.

His mathematical works helped develop non-Euclidean geometry, integral calculus, and trigonometry. Thebit also translated many Greek and Syrian works into Arabic and Latin during his lifetime ("Euclid's Elements of Geometry" was one such title). Examples of many of these works have survived the middle ages and are still examined today. After his death, Thebit's sons Ibrahim and Sinan continued to contribute to geometry and astronomy. Thebit left a lasting legacy of published works and intelligent successors.

References:
http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/qurra.html
http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/ihame/Sec12.htm

Picture:
A small drawing of Thebit as he might have appeared.
Portrait