Peter Abelard

Peter Abelard can be considered a great scientist even though he was himself not a scientist in the more current sense. He was one of the greatest medieval thinkers where he was big believer in reason. This kind of thought is the basis for real science as we know it today. He also supported schools and was a big player in the creation of schools, where his style of reason was taught.

Sorry this is so late and so full of useless information.

Astronomy and Astrology

Astronomical knowledge during the middle ages came from the translations of Greek and Arabic texts by Islamic scholars. After being introduced to the astrolabe by these scholars, Western astronomers became to shift their focus to quantitative studies. Though some data was collected by western scholars themselves, the bulk came from the works mentioned above. By the 13^th century, many texts had been translated to Latin and were being spread through the universities. Johannes de Sacrobosco’s The Sphere, written at Paris, would be an introductory astronomy text. He described planetary motion through the system of epicycles first explored by the ancient Greeks. Students were taught the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. However, there were philosophical problems between Ptolemy and Aristotle. Aristotle explained planetary motion through concentric spheres; this could not be matched mathematically, or otherwise, with Ptolemy’s epicycles. Due to the need for quantitative accuracy, Ptolemy would be favored by most.

Like astronomy, astrology was a common scholarly field in the middle ages. Philosophical and theological beliefs justified the study of how the heavens influenced the earth. Though astrology was condemned by Augustine and other Christian scholars early on, the Greek and Arabic texts that were brought during the middle ages made astrology popular again. Aristotle’s metaphysics would dominate astrology. This was in distinct contrast with the rejection of Aristotle in favor of Ptolemy in the realm of quantitative astronomy. Both subjects though complimented each other. While astronomy would effectively produce a schedule of events, astrology explained why that schedule held weight.

Fleabane (Pennyroyal) – (Assignment 3)

Fleabane was first used as a flea repellant if it was rubbed right on the skin. It was also recommended as a cough remedy and a digestive aid when taken with honey. It also was used to remedy cough, upset stomach, flatulence, anxiety, and menstruation promotion. These flowers are found in temperate and mountainous areas North America and Europe.

http://www.ct-botanical-society.org/galleries/pics_e/erigeronphil.jpg

http://www.ct-botanical-society.org/galleries/pics_e/erigeronphil_w.jpg

Protagoras (Assignment 2)

Protagoras was a philosopher who loved from 490 - 420 BCE. He was a highly paid teacher on virtue and political life, and gave specified training in rhetoric and public speaking.

One of Protagoras greatest impact on history was his influence on Plato. Protagoras influenced Plato’s search for knowledge in moral judgment. In one of Plato’s dialogues called Protagoras, he credits him with inventing the role of the teacher of virtue. Protagoras was one of the earth Greek philosophers who shifted from natural philosophy to human philosophy.

http://www.crystalinks.com/protagoras.jpg

http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/protagor.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagoras

assignment 3

Borage or Borago officinalis

This herb was claimed to be the best of mood enhancers by Pliny, Dioscorides, and John Evelyn. It was naturally cultivated for the kitchen, used to flavor wines and teas. Preparations made from the seeds oil were thought to relieve respiratory inflammations. Most preperations to "improve" the mood were given in tea or wine. One could call it the earliest of anti-depressents! It was also used as a diruretic and emmolient, for fevers, and heart problems.

An image of the plant: http://www.botanical.com/botanica/mgmh/b/borage66.html

h.novak

A very late blog im sorry (Assignment 3)

This is the herb blog from the week that i ended up in the emergency room for my leg. I've been swamped, sorry this is so late Dr. Ruane.

German Chamomile (Matricaria recutierbta)

We all know of Chamomile tea as the soothing tea to drink before we go to bed, but it has long be a remedy for multiple things. This specific type of chamomile, is as the name implies, is found in Germany, and has been found in that area for quite sometime. However it grows all over Europe, and parts of Asia, in temperatures that can sustain the plant. In the ancient times it was used as a treatment for sore stomachs, which it can still be used for today. There are biochemical aspects that aid in treating an upset stomach, however it will not treat acid reflux disease. In ancient times it was ground up into a powder and then ingested. Modern practice is the all known tea. It also serves as a mild anti-inflammatory. And another known ancient use for the herb was the mild sedative traits that the herb shows, mostly used as a sleep aid. This is also the most well known use for the herb today.

In parts of Eastern Europe the herb has even been used for so long its woven its self into the folklore. In Slovakia a folk saying says thats people should bow to the chamomile plant due to its hundreds of years of experience.

An image of the plant in bloom, and not in bloom go here:
http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/weeds/plants/ger_chamomile.htm

References:
http://www.stevenfoster.com/education/monograph/chamomile.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Chamomile

Grades for the Team Project and Blog Assignments

It is taking me a little longer to process all of the paperwork and to review all of the blog assignments (including the late ones). I will have final sets of grades out to each of you by the end of the weekend, Monday morning at the latest. Please bear with me in this complicated process. So far, no team received lower than an 80 for the Team Project success. All team project grades are based on two scores, averaged together: team project success and individual contributions. However, a few individuals from specific teams may have received a lower grade due to participation issues. The lowest grade for individual participation so far is 70.

Regarding the blog assignments, the vast majority of you are working on A or B grades so far. Late assignments, obviously less complete blog entries, non existant assignments, all contribute to some students having grades below the average. There are a few people with significantly lower grades on the blog assignment due to missing entries or numerous/excessive late entries.

Final Review Sheet

The final exam is on Tuesday morning at 8 am, in our normal classroom. You will have two hours to complete the exam. Please expect to be there for at least 90 minutes or so (that should give you an idea of how much I expect for answers). To help you in writing your answers, each student is allowed to bring a single 4"x6" notecard (it must be a notecard, not paper), with handwritten notes only. The notecard, if you decide to use one, must be turned in with your final.

Part One: You will have to answer one of the following questions from this list for the final.

1) Discuss the overall importance of Islamic translations and commentaries to the development of Western science and philosophy. In the course of your essay, provide at least 5 examples and discuss their specific importance or contributions in detail.

2) Discuss medieval contributions to the following fields of scientific inquiry:
natural philosophy, terrestial physics and optics. Use material from the assigned readings to support your answer.

3) Discuss the role of the Roman Catholic Church in promoting or hampering scientific inquiry. How and why did the church act the way it did from the 12th through the 15th centuries? Provide several examples of the RCC's behaviour and the justifications provided for their actions.

Part Two: Everyone will have to answer the following question.

A) Discuss the development of medical education and professional medical training during the High Middle Ages (1100-1300) and the Late Middle Ages (1300-1450). How successful were the changes undertaken in modernizing medical knowledge and training? In the course of your answer, discuss how a medieval physician would treat a patient who came to see them, suffering from 1) a non-surgical complaint, and 2) a complaint requiring surgical treatment.

Astronomy and Astrology

Astronomical knowledge was in hot debate throughout the 13th and then into the 14th century. The main ideas were developed from Plato and Aristotle's writings as well as Islamic texts and work by Robert Grosseteste. Probably the biggest issue of this time period was the conflict between scholars of science and theologians. The pivotal point between the 13th and 14th century for the science of astronomy was the condemnation of 1277. There was a constant struggle to find philosophically and scientifically correct answers while preventing contradicting the church and prior beliefs. This atmosphere was a big influence on the type of writings that were produced during these times. Another influence on this compromise was Francis Bacon who wrote following the idea that science was useful only to the point that it was useful to religion. Another figure during the 13th century was Thomas Aquinas who's works were designed to push philosophy to harmonize with religion.
The scientific theories of astronomy were based on Aristotelian philosophy that there was a beginning of time and that there were distinct regions of the cosmic sphere. There was also no material outside the cosmos, a theory that was challenged after the 1277 condemnations. Another opinion was that the heavens were filled with aether ad there were Unmoved Movers that rotated with uniform circular motion. There were also calculations for the distance from the earth to the moon. The terrestrial region was made up of the 4 elements, fire and air that ascend and water and earth that descend. There were also theories on comets, shooting stars and rainbows. There was a strong tie of astronomy and mathematics and instrumentalism. During the middle ages astronomy and cosmology were considered separate fields but they were in the same “methodological continuum”(Lindberg). The differences were in the history of development. Islamic development of astronomy was still powering on through the conflict of the Christian west. Instruments were being built such as the astrolabe and the Maragha Observatory. Scholars such as Ibn Rushd had challenged Ptolomy's theories favoring concentric spheres of Aristotle. Also astronomy was a large part of Chinese scientific history during this time. A large influence on Western astronomy of the middle ages was the translation of Greek and Islamic text. Then came the western books like The Sphere by Johannes de Sacrobosco
http://www.esotericarchives.com/solomon/sphere.htm
Teaching tools were also created for students of astronomy. The most popular was the Toledan Tables later becoming the Alfonsine tables.
http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/d-mathematics/images/math18.jpg
Astrology or the idea that the heavens and the earth were physically connected leading to predictions was as much a science as anything else in the middle ages. The physical observations and the discoveries of astronomy lead to this being an important field to both religion and medicine. The magnetic influence was demonstrated by the invention of the compass in the late 13th century. Ptolomy was a great influence on astrology and wrote the handbook Tetrabiblos. The threat of astrology to Christians and Muslims was the idea of determinism. If the connections and movements of the earth and the cosmos determined or influenced the life of people then it removed the power of God over the universe. Humans needed free will and responsibility in order for the church to hold them accountable and with fatalism and determinism of cosmology that was being threatened. The compromise at the end of the 12th century was that the astrologers didn't worship the stars and the planets but their creator and the power the creator had given them. The 13th century led to a firmer rooting of astrology in the scientific world and a vital part of the study and practice of medicine. Astrology was attacked again along with astronomy during the condemnations of 1277.
After the condemnations of 1277 during the middle of the 14th century there was still the awareness of the threat of censure by the church. It influenced the development of science and what scientists were willing to say. Aristotle was back and a required part of the university curriculum. The idea of separation of science and theology was playing in the minds of scholars such as John Duns Scotus and William of Ockham. Faith was to be accepted by faith rather than philosophical proof. Another issue was the theme of divine omnipotence. God can alter the universe so there is no absolute scientific truth. These debates and ideas led to the development of modern science through observation. Though there were many conflicts and disagreements during these centuries there was also a place for development and change.

Astronomy and Astrology

First astronomical knowledge was in hot debate throughout the 13th and then into the 14th century. The main ideas were developed from Plato and Aristotle's writings as well as Islamic texts and work by Robert Grosseteste. Probably the biggest issue of this time period was the conflict between scholars of science and theologians. The pivotal point between the 13th and 14th century for the science of astronomy was the condemnation of 1277. There was a constant struggle to find philosophically and scientifically correct answers while preventing contradicting the church and prior beliefs. This atmosphere was a big influence on the type of writings that were produced during these times. Another influence on this compromise was Francis Bacon who wrote following the idea that science was useful only to the point that it was useful to religion. Another figure during the 13th century was Thomas Aquinas who's works were designed to push philosophy to harmonize with religion.
The scientific theories of astronomy were based on Aristotelian philosophy that there was a beginning of time and that there were distinct regions of the cosmic sphere. There was also no material outside the cosmos, a theory that was challenged after the 1277 condemnations. Another opinion was that the heavens were filled with aether ad there were Unmoved Movers that rotated with uniform circular motion. There were also calculations for the distance from the earth to the moon. The terrestrial region was made up of the 4 elements, fire and air that ascend and water and earth that descend. There were also theories on comets, shooting stars and rainbows. There was a strong tie of astronomy and mathematics and instrumentalism. During the middle ages astronomy and cosmology were considered separate fields but they were in the same “methodological continuum”(Lindberg). The differences were in the history of development. Islamic development of astronomy was still powering on through the conflict of the Christian west. Instruments were being built such as the astrolabe and the Maragha Observatory. Scholars such as Ibn Rushd had challenged Ptolomy's theories favoring concentric spheres of Aristotle. Also astronomy was a large part of Chinese scientific history during this time. A large influence on Western astronomy of the middle ages was the translation of Greek and Islamic text. Then came the western books like The Sphere by Johannes de Sacrobosco
http://www.esotericarchives.com/solomon/sphere.htm
Teaching tools were also created for students of astronomy. The most popular was the Toledan Tables later becoming the Alfonsine tables.
http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/vatican.exhibit/exhibit/d-mathematics/images/math18.jpg
Astrology or the idea that the heavens and the earth were physically connected leading to predictions was as much a science as anything else in the middle ages. The physical observations and the discoveries of astronomy lead to this being an important field to both religion and medicine. The magnetic influence was demonstrated by the invention of the compass in the late 13th century. Ptolomy was a great influence on astrology and wrote the handbook Tetrabiblos. The threat of astrology to Christians and Muslims was the idea of determinism. If the connections and movements of the earth and the cosmos determined or influenced the life of people then it removed the power of God over the universe. Humans needed free will and responsibility in order for the church to hold them accountable and with fatalism and determinism of cosmology that was being threatened. The compromise at the end of the 12th century was that the astrologers didn't worship the stars and the planets but their creator and the power the creator had given them. The 13th century led to a firmer rooting of astrology in the scientific world and a vital part of the study and practice of medicine. Astrology was attacked again along with astronomy during the condemnations of 1277.
After the condemnations of 1277 during the middle of the 14th century there was still the awareness of the threat of censure by the church. It influenced the development of science and what scientists were willing to say. Aristotle was back and a required part of the university curriculum. The idea of separation of science and theology was playing in the minds of scholars such as John Duns Scotus and William of Ockham. Faith was to be accepted by faith rather than philosophical proof. Another issue was the theme of divine omnipotence. God can alter the universe so there is no absolute scientific truth. These debates and ideas led to the development of modern science through observation. Though there were many conflicts and disagreements during these centuries there was also a place for development and change.

Deathmatch: Astronomy vs. Astrology

Today it is widely recognized that astrology and astronomy are two entirely different fields, where one explores the universe around us and the other is useful if you want to find out if today you might have luck in love or business or cards or the lottery. Astrology is generally regarded as a bogus hocus pocus, but it was not always so. At one point astronomy and astrology were one and the same, and the terms could even be used interchangeably.
The shift from the realm of the mystical to the realm of the physical came about largely through the use of what would eventually become known as the scientific method. Humans have always looked upwards, finding patterns in the stars and using their regular movement to determine important things for an early agrarian society, like the seasons. However in the medieval times, calendars had been around for centuries and population centers were far more complex than the simple farmers of old, but people still tended to hold to the belief that celestial bodies influenced everything around them. The "science" of astrology, though it was almost universally revered in Europe, made general claims about how the world should move in order to optimize its interaction with the heavenly bodies. Astrologers were even hired as Royal consultants. They uses the scientific knowledge of the day to reinforce their point, much like the Young Earth Creationists of the modern age. However both science and astrology had an inaccurate picture of the universe, hanging tightly to the geocentric model of Ptolemy. It is in the focus of the two that the divide begins to arise. Astronomy began to look to the heavens to determine accurately how they moved, and eventually attempted to describe why they moved in such a manner. Astrology on the other hand kept its eyes down, focusing on how the heavenly bodies influenced event on earth. Planets governed the health and fortune of individual humans, to the point where they might even be viewed as divine interactions with the human race, at which point astrology becomes spiritualistic or a philosophy. This divide is subtle in the 13th and 14th centuries because science had not developed into its own discipline, the scientific method had not been formally established, and the basis of accurate scientific knowledge of the heavens did not exist. Eventually science would show that the heavenly bodies do influence life from a distance through both gravitation and electromagnetic radiation, but those effects still do not include affecting a person's love life.
Astronomy and astrology would eventually develop an irreconcilable chasm that shunned astrologers as heretics and kooks, and made many astronomers doubt the existence of the ancient notion of God, but in the medieval times they were bound together by a constrained worldview.

http://www.billyandcharlie.com/planets/astronomy.html
http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm

Common Fig (assignment 3)

The common fig was used historically as a laxative, as well as to treat burns, sprains and boils. If the fig is roasted then split in two the soft interior may be used to treat gumboils, dental abscesses and boils. The milk from a freshly broken stalk of the fig is useful in treating warts. This milk has also been used in some country to raise bilisters. The use of the fig goes back thousands of years, and is even mentioned in the Bible as a cure for boils.

References

http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/f/figcom12.html
http://www.quantal.demon.co.uk/saga/ooc/herbs.html#herblist

Pictures

Hey all, here's a link to some pictures and videos I took today. Enjoy.

http://s117.photobucket.com/albums/o56/mlucido87/

Catapult Competition

We are still on despite the horrible weather. I will be at Southgate field from about 9:30ish until the class is over.

Review sheets will be posted by Wednesday.

Astronomy and Astrology

After the fall of Rome, the Europe came into a stagnant point regarding many sciences. The emergence of Astrology became much more prominent than that of Astronomy due to its popularity among the people and its constant association with medicine as well as daily tasks. Astronomy wasn’t as pursued due to a lack of mathematical inquisition and learning as well as the lack of appropriate technology.

Astronomy

The lack of knowledge, especially written knowledge, Europe suffered was the primary cause of the slow advances in Astronomy. Most astronomical knowledge from the classical era was not available, with the exception of a few simplified summaries. In contrast, translations and further observations flourished in the Arab world. Around 1100, Europe finally started to see an influx of the study of nature. Astronomy became one of the liberal arts, which made it a core course at many universities. The most common model used throughout the 12^th and 13^th century was the geocentric model. Only later in the 14^th century, did Nicole Oresme argue that “God hath established the world which shall not be moved” (Wikipedia.com, Astronomy).

Translations from Arabic to Latin were made by scholars such as Adelard of Bath (1126). His translation of the Toledan Tables, which was compiled by al-Zarqali during the 11^th century, provided treasuries of quantitative astronomical information. This type of information was key to the study of Astronomy. The Toledan Tables contained information from earlier times; thus, they were updated by Raymond of Marseilles and Robert of Chester, which marks the beginning of true Western mathematical astronomy. Astronomical instruments were developed such as the “new quadrant” of Profatius Judaeus. It was used for measuring altitudes (Lindberg, pg 269). Books were needed for use in Universities since Astronomy was a key subject, the most popular being The Sphere by Johannes de Sacrobosco. His text contained elementary aspects of astronomy along with some information on planetary motion.

Astrology

Prior to the 12^th century, the attitude towards astrology was of condemnation. The translation of astrological treatises from Greek and Arabic had a huge impact in changing this attitude. Important translated works include Ptolemy’s Tetrabiblos and Albumasar’s Introduction to the Science of Astrology. Both works tried to explain the science of astrology and how it influenced several aspects of human life. This led to a somewhat adoption of Aristotle’s metaphysics of matter, form, and substance. Translations of Aristotle’s actual work intensified his acceptance in this subject.

Astrology in the 13th and 14th centuries was a science, and one that was taught in schools and universities. It played a large role in medicine at that time as well, for both diagnosis and treatment, and it was even accepted by the Church. Astrology was used for theological reasons down to interpreting what the God's purpose for man on Earth was. It provided signs for why things were the way they were. The signs could be used to predict the future, or to tell when the best day to build a house or give birth was. Michael Scot was one of the premiere astrologers of the 13^th century, and said that astrological signs could be used to discover the truth in everything. He argued that the heavenly bodies physically affected every living thing in existence. Much credit to the spread of Astrology should be given to Aristotle, who provided his written works in a language all scholars could read at the beginning of the 13th century in Western Europe. One of the most important books in the 13th century was produced by Guido Bonatti. Bonatti's book listed questions that astrology could answer, and made it appeal to clergymen at the time, helping further the acceptance of astrology in the Church.

However, as we continue deeper into the 13^th century, many aspects of Astrology began to conflict with the Church, which led to the condemnation of 1277 and even the hunt of Astrologers by the Inquisition. Cecco d’Ascoli is known as the only astrologer to be burned by the Inquisition.

The major difference between Astronomy and Astrology was that astronomy was considered a mathematical art, a member of the mathematical quadrivium (Lindberg, pg 268). The only problem associated with this was that the mathematical knowledge available during the Middle Ages was sub-par.

One of the major issues of the time was how to bring Ptolemy’s teachings on astronomy into harmony with Aristotle’s teachings on cosmology as well as not to disagree or contest the church. It was mentioned in the Astrology section how this was managed. Astronomy didn’t seem to conflict with the church since all it was was mathematical observations and extensive book keeping. Obviously, Astronomers favored Ptolemy while Astrologists followed Aristotle.

Image of Astronomy/Astrology instrument:

Astrolabe - Used for navigation, used by both Astronomers and Astrologers

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c9/Astrolab.JPG

Sources:

Lindberg, David C. The beginnings of Western Science. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1992

http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy#Middle_Ages_and_Islamic_astronomy

Astronomy and Astrology in the late Middle Age

Today, when one thinks of astronomy, planetariums, elaborate star maps, and gigantic telescopes come to mind. When one thinks of astrology, on the other hand, Sunday morning newspaper horoscopes and the signs of the Zodiac come to mind. Why is it that astrology is in magazines and newspapers while astronomy is in scientific journals? Do not both of these studies involve the stars, the planets, and their positions in space? To grasp a more full understanding, it may be necessary to look back to the high Middle Age of the 13th and 14th centuries when there was much ado about these practices.

Astronomy, long considered a science, has been an object of study since the ancient times of the West. However, during a Dark Age, many of the works, measurements, and theories had been forgotten. Luckily, the Islamic world preserved much of what there was concerning the cosmos. By the 1200s, this knowledge was coming back to the West through translation and a renewed interest in astronomy. The works of Ptolemy were debated and the theories held by Aristotle were refined to fit the needs of the time. As always, this was a science of mathematics and physics.

Of course the system they created was geocentric, as had long been the popular belief. There were two main spheres, as Aristotle had proposed: the terrestrial and the celestial. The terrestrial sphere was the earth and its atmosphere. The other, of more importance to the astronomer, was the celestial sphere. The celestial sphere that came out of the late Middle Age had ten, some would say eleven, thick concentric spheres (the perfect shape because God made the heavens perfect), one for each of the seven planets (the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn — generally thought to be in that order), a firmament which held the stars (some thought the stars were separate), a crystalline or aqueous heaven, and the empyreum, which housed the angels. From the earth, measurements of orbits and locations of celestial bodies were taken by a vast majority of useful tools, including the astrolabe, the torquetum, and the armillary sphere.

Armillary Sphere: http://www.humboldt.edu/~rap1/EarlySciInstSite/Instruments/ArmSphere/ESI.ArmilSphr.jpg
Torquetum: http://www.humboldt.edu/~rap1/EarlySciInstSite/Instruments/Torquetum/Turq_Ecl.jpg
Astrolabe: http://www.physics.ncsu.edu/courses/astron/astrolabe.gif

Not completely unlike astronomy was astrology. The study of astrology was likewise rooted in the celestial sphere and was concerned with the location of the heavens and the heavenly or celestial bodies. However, unlike astronomists, astrologists used the information of the stars and planets to make worldly predictions. As far as they were concerned, since the celestial bodies had influence on tides, minerals, and the seasons, they were physically connected to the terrestrial sphere. Since the celestial sphere had influence on other such worldly things, it would be understandable to believe they also have a causal effect on the lives of humans. Through this reasoning, astrology grabbed a foothold in many aspects of daily life, most notably in medicine.

http://www.internationalastrologers.com/anatomical_body_Astrology.jpg

The astrologists used the work of the astonomists to make predictions that couldn't be proven by any means. Astrology became taboo, as it may be viewed today. Despite the underlying and clear connection between these two lines of study in the heavens and the stars and planets, the ends to which each art wishes to come are vastly different. While astronomists wish to understand the physics of non-terrestrial substance, astrologists wish to use non-terrestrial substance to explain and predict terrestrial matters.

From the beginning of life to our unforeseen end all human beings will have something in common; we will have all looked up into the sky. Some of us will do more than look up in the sky. Their curiosity to look up into the stars will lead some to observer, collect data, and investigate the phenomenon we see in the sky. It has already become a profession to many. Some believed that the stars seen in the sky have a correlation to our lives so therefore use their collected data to cast predictions about the future. Others just look at the sky and study the phenomenon occurring beyond the Earth’s atmosphere. From our curiosity looking above two fields of knowledge are born, the practice of Astrology and the science of Astronomy. These are two very significant fields of knowledge because both still mystify us. It is a shame that for many of us today the distinction isn’t clear, the two fields have been mashed up into single practice for many people and cultures. The source of confusion leads us back the 14^th century on Europe when scientists first started unraveling the mechanics of our universe.

The origins of astrology are dated back to the era of the ancient Babylonians in the middle of 2^nd millennium BC. Since then Astrologers have been studying celestial bodies to aid the understanding how men should live their lives and help expand knowledge about our personalities, social affairs, and other events. This practice was predominant until the Renaissance. Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences however most innovations did not come until the invention of the telescope. Astronomy was recognized as independent to Astrology by the Greeks however most astronomy teachings were passed down as part of astrology. Then the scientific revolution occurred, and the distinction between Astronomy and Astrology were becoming clear. Scientist like Nicolaus Copernicus who proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system and Galileo Galilei who defended Copernicus through his invention of the telescopes made great breakthroughs in the field of Astronomy. The field was further bolstered by Newtonian physics which was able to quantify the motion of the celestial bodies. Thus at the birth of the scientific method Astronomy became more distinguishable from Astrology.

http://casswww.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/History.html

http://www.nickcampion.com/nc/history/history.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy

Late, but still great

During the 13th and 14th centuries, the relationship between astronomy and astrology was like any natural marriage between two people that hate each other but seem to have an unmistakable bond that unites them, almost like Batman and Superman. Issues cropped up throughout these centuries that first united the two studies but eventually divided them. Throughout the centuries leading up to the 13th and 14th, western relations with the Arabic world had begun to prosper and many ideas that were locked away within the Arabic language were bridging the gap into Latin and Greek. This opened up a whole new bag of tricks that the west could use to further their own study of the stars. Collaberation caused astronomy to progress while it seemed to shunt the growth of astrology. During this time, the Church had a lot of influence over nearly every faction of life in the western world. When knowledge from the Arabic world began to filter into the studies of astrologers in which knowledge of the relative positions of celestial bodies and related information is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing knowledge about personality, human affairs, and other terrestrial events, this seemed to be a direct assault on the Church's belief in determinism. It got to the point where astrologers who had been following the beliefs of Ptolemy and even to a certain degree, Aristotle, had begun to find that their knowledge, in some ways, was reinforced and mirrored by their Arabic brethren, the Church felt it was imperative to issue a condemnation on the study of astrological determinism in 1277. Astronomy, unlike astrology, was not directly smited by the Church. The observation and predictions of the motions of the naked-eye objects slowly progressed and led to the formulation of observatories. The 13th and 14th centuries marked a turning point, of sorts, in mankinds study of the heavens and the stars. Emphasis seemed to begin to sway towards astronomy rather than astrology, though both stemmed from philosophical origins, the more scientific study seemed to begin to take the lead.

astronomy and astrology

According to the Merriam Webster dictionary astronomy is the study of objects and matter outside the earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties and astrology was the divination of the supposed influences of the stars and planets on human affairs and terrestrial events by their positions and aspects. In the 13^th and 14^th centuries the two studies were not so separately defined. They were both intertwined through the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic ideas. The main commonalities between the 13th and 14th centuries were the ideas of Aristotle and Ptolemy. In the 13^th century this ideas were being revisited. For example, Thomas Aquinas tried to relate these ideas to Christianity. This later turned into trying to disprove some of the ideas which created problems with the church, which later in the 14^th centuries turned into you can try to disprove the ideas of Aristotle but as long as you in the end say he was correct, but ultimately the these lines of thought help the started of the Renaissance.

Final Post!

Astronomy can be defined as “the science that deals with the material universe beyond the earth's atmosphere (dictionary.com)” while Astrology can be defined as “the study that assumes and attempts to interpret the influence of the heavenly bodies on human affairs (dictionary.com).” In order for these two concepts to survive, they had to work together during the 13^th and 14^th centuries. Astronomy could be used only when a situation arises that showed the connection between the earth and heavens. Astrology was a type of philosophy rather than defined as a science. Because of that reason, people in that time of age tended to question how accurate and truthful it really was.

Astrology during the 13^th century turned to the insights of Neoplatonic and Hellenistic philosophy for background wisdom. Astrology is linked to actually “knowing something,” not just on the surface but at a deeper level. This is because of the relationship between Gods Will and how it is apparent in the world that is actually seen. A part of this whole concept was from observational data. It showed the tides connected to the moon cycle around the Earth with its “magnetic pull,” as well as the season’s connection to solar motion.

On the flip side was Astronomy. It was fastly gaining popularity throughout the 13^th and 14^th centuries. So fast, in fact, that many teachers began writing their own books. Johannes de Sacrobosco, in the _____ century wrote his book, The Sphere. This booked ended up to be one of the turning points in history because he was able to describe and predict the west-to-east motion of the sun around the ecliptic circle at the rate of precisely 1 degree per day. He also said that each of the planets (excluding the sun) is carried in the ecliptic circle.

As time progressed; however, the study of Astronomy eventually because a problem in the churches. No one could really prove how all this knew knowledge could coincide with both Ptolemy’s theory and Aristotle’s cosmology theory. These two different views tended to clash greatly with each other.

Sources

www.dictionary.com

The Beginning of Western Science

http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm

http://www.medievalastrology.co.za/background_info.htm

Astrology and Astronomy in the 13th and 14th Centuries

Mankind has been observing the night sky for thousands of years. Ancient Babylonians developed Astrology and identified the 12 signs of the zodiac. This knowledge was further developed by the Greeks, then later by the Arabs who built upon the Greek system and then translated it into Latin. The Arabs were the perfectors of the Astrolabe which was invented by the Greeks. By calculating the position of the stars you could tell what direction you were going. This was used for over 1000 years in Europe and in the Arab world as the primary instrument of navigation both at sea and on land.

In the modern world Astronomy and Astrology are regarded as separate disciplines. Astronomy is accepted as a science while Astrology is regarded not as a science but as a divination or instrument of foretelling. Astronomy is defined as the study of objects and phenomena beyond the atmosphere of the earth. Astrology can be distinguished in two ways 1. a set of beliefs about physical influence within the cosmos 2. the art of casting horoscopes and determining propitious movements .In the 13th and 14th centuries the astronomer and the astrologer were one and the same and in Medieval Europe, Astronomy and Astrology were actually encompassed under the single title of Astronomia.

As astrological texts from Hellenistic and Arab astrologers were translated into Latin, Astrology became more widely accepted. The royal courts would be assisted by astrologers for advice on how to run their kingdoms; in return they would receive funds for research. Medieval astrologers believed that the sun, moon, planets, and astrological zodiac celestial bodies had influences over everything from the weather and the growth of crops to the inner workings of the human body and each person’s personality. It was common for doctors to check the positions of the stars before giving diagnosis to a patient. A zodiac man chart was used to explain complicated ideas to patients and to show how the astrological formations ruled over each part of the body.

As noted by David Lindberg, “By the end of the twelfth century, the most important astronomical texts were available in Latin. The history of Western astronomy from this point onward is a story of growing mastery an increasing dissemination of astronomical knowledge, primarily through the universities.” Some of the most common texts of the time were Ptolemy’s Almagest, Al-Farghānī’s Rudiments of Astronomy,and Johannes de Sacrobosco’s The Sphere. Another important text of the time was Theorica Planetarum which described Ptolemy’s theory of the movements of the planets. The solid sphere version of this theory was developed by Ibn al-Haytham and this was later elaborated by Roger Bacon in the 1260’s. During the 13th century astronomy was known as one of the Seven Liberal Arts in the universities. The study of the night skies, tracking of the sun, moon, the planets and the stars was used to create planetary tables. Medieval astronomy was considered to be a real science; the evolution of celestial objects was associated with mathematics for quanitive predictions and to make geometric models.

By the end of the 14th century, a very small division between astrology and astronomy began to appear, astronomy being considered more of a science and astrology was being considered more of a spiritual belief system or superstition. This rift became even larger separating the subjects almost completely through the Scientific Revolution, the Age of Enlightenment, and the Age of Reason.

Pictures
http://www.bl.uk/learning/images/bodies/large1719.html

http://www.sfusd.edu/schwww/sch618/Travelers/Transportation.html

http://www.answers.com/topic/medical-astrology

References

http://www.answers.com/topic/astrology-and-astronomy

http://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/bodies/astrology/astrologyhome.html

Lindberg, David C. “The Beginnings of Western Science”. University Chicago Press. Chicago (1992).

http://www.answers.com/topic/medical-astrology

Astronomy versus Astrology

Astronomy
Astronomy was a respected mathematical field mainly because it was one of the quadriviums studied during these time periods. There was limited information known about astronomy until data was collected by the Arabs and the Toledan Tables came into use. Unfortunately the tools needed for further astronomical studies was restricted due to technological advances (or lack there of). During this time, astronomy was gaining popularity because it was moving away from being a pseudoscience. Empirical data was being gathered and mathematical calculations were providing proofs to abstract theories. Models and books like Almagest by Ptolemy were still used and studied to increase the recognition of astronomy and to make known the proofs available. A matter of fact, astronomy was gaining popularity in universities to the point where teachers were writing their own books on astronomical theories, such as the Sphere by Johannes de Sacrobosco. Here he described the west-to-east motion of the sun around the ecliptic at the rate of about 1degrees per day and the fact that each of the planets except the sun is carried around on an epicycle. Back to Ptolemy’s theoretical models was the idea that it did not agree with Aristotelian thought; a scientist looking for quantitative results had no choice but to adhere to Ptolemy’s findings. During this time astronomical scholars like Ibn al-Haytham (optics) and Roger Bacon (Aristotelian supporter) became known. Unfortunately astronomy was not that reputable as a major in universities; there were few lectures on the subject on Theorica and Almagest.

Astrology
Astrology was not the most accepted field and was somewhat snubbed by scholars as an illogical and a bunch of abstract thoughts. It discussed the relationship between the heavens and the earth. There were two major aspects to astrology. First there was astrology as a set of beliefs about physical influences within the cosmos. Secondly, there was astrology as the art of casting horoscopes, determining propitious moments and the like. However the idea of astrology as a natural philosophy was a reputable concept and was, inevitable, focused upon in the 13th and 14th century. Observational data supported the idea that the heavens were the source of light and heat. In addition, the seasons were connected to solar motion around the ecliptic. The tides were linked to lunar motion and the poles were associated with a magnetic pull.
Plato emphasized the unity of the cosmos and detected the connection between the cosmos and humans. Aristotle discussed how the cosmos were not just a source of celestial motion, but the motion and change in the sublunar realm. Stoic thought was also involved where he theorized that the cosmos were the source of unity and continuity. Like in astronomy, Ptolemy was a key figure where he composed Tetrabiblos talking about astrological prognostications cannot match the certitude of astronomical demonstration. He did, however, agree that about the existence of celestial forces and the validly of astrological prognostication. In addition, it outlined the basic beliefs of astrology and describes it was an art with its technical principles. Another point mentioned is the concepts of planetary omens and zodiacs.
Controversy did arise in astrology that clashed with the idea of determinism and the role of divinity that is associated with the stars and planets (anti-astrological). However, astrology did get a not in its incorporation of Aristotelian natural philosophy. In practice, astrology also became associated with medicine where physicians would use predictions from the planetary symbols and zodiacs to practice their techniques.

Source:
Lindberg, David C.. The Beginning of Western Science. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992.

Knowledge of astrology and astronomy

Astrology and astronomy existed at the same time during history which lead to some conflict and debate but also developed with both similarities and differences during this time. Astronomy is basically the observation of the celestial bodies where as astrology is the study of celestial bodies to determine their purpose in society. The two sciences grew together and also worked together. Most of material of medieval astronomy came from the Islamic world, however, by the 13th and 14th century a change started to occur. One without the other wouldn’t have allowed all the accurate information to be revealed. Unfortunately, with all the research being done the study of astronomy eventually lead problems in the church. In the Christian church many astrologers were charlatans because the church was against the study of determinism. The study Astronomy on the other hand didn’t lead to any problems within the church or elsewhere. Astronomy and Astrology were used to solve problems and answer a lot of scientist questions but they also caused some debate over the universe and what it really looked like. A bigger debate and controversy it caused was with combing Christianity and Aristotle ideas together. This was a big problem because most of his Aristotle ideas were seemed almost one hundred percent accurate but the Christian church wouldn’t accept them. Another change that occurred in the 13th and 14th century was the fact astronomers started to use better equipment which consequently resulted in the most accurate information ever revealed. Last the two scientist were now separating from each other as oppose to working with one another. Astronomy was only used when astronomers needed to show the connection between the earths and heavens. Astrology now considered a philosophy rather then a science and people tend to question the truth of it. Astronomy and Astrology still supported one another when trying to explain the concepts of heaven and earth.

Astronomy & Astrology

Astrology and astronomy existed together in history. Astrology is the study of the positions and movements of astronomical bodies such as the sun, moon, stars, and planets. It is studied in the belief that their positions and movements correspond to events and fortune on Earth. Astronomy is the study of the universe and celestial bodies. Both have developed drastically with both similarities and differences during that time period.

Both astrology and astronomy were widely practiced in Europe during the 13th and 14th centuries. Until about the 15th century, they were also viewed by many scholars to be complementary and essential to each other. It is also important to note that they were both considered to be forms of science. However, discoveries made by astronomers Copernicus and Galileo later undermined the foundations of astrology declaring it not to be a science.

In the 13th century, the interest in astronomy was increasing. Arabic translations of Ptolemy’s Almagest began filtering into western Europe. From this they made tables of planetary motions based on Ptolemy’s system. As opposed to astrology, astronomy was understood to be strongly influenced by mathematical and quantative properties. It was a primary focus in universities and was frequently studied by the students. Johannes de Sacrobosco’s The Sphere, written in the 13th century, demonstrated accurate knowledge of astronomy during that time period. He described west-to-east motion of the sun around the ecliptic at the rate of about 1 degree per day. In his textbook he also accurately discussed lunar and solar eclipses and the elliptical pattern of the planets around the sun. He made several other accurate advancements in astronomy.

During the 13th century, astrology also grew in importance and became a standard part of the medieval world view. Unlike astronomy, there was a close relationship between astrology and the practice of medicine during this time period. It became a vital influence to the successful practice of medicine. Very few people were able to deny the reality of celestial influence.

There were several issues dealing with both astronomy and astrology during the 13th and 14th centuries. Information is inevitably lost or misinterpreted during translation from one language to the next. This will have an effect on the beliefs and knowledge reflected in different geographic locations. Another serious issue during this time period dealt with the question of how to bring Ptolemaic theory into harmony with Aristotelian cosmology. Many of the beliefs of Aristotle did not agree with those of Ptolemy on the subject of astronomy. Many scholars explored theoretical claims or sought out a compromising positions.

Despite issues and differences, both astronomy and astrology played a major role during the 13th and 14th centuries, illustrating a broad knowledge in both sciences.

Astronomy/Astrology/13th-14th Centuries

After the fall of the Roman Empire, most astronomical knowledge (and particularly, advances) were in the Middle East, kept alive and nurtured by Islamic scholars. Up until the 13th and 14th centuries, the only astronomical knowledge in Western Europe was knowledge that had direct impact with the church, and even that was basic. By the 13th century, one of the first catalysts to bring astronomy back into education was circulation of translated copies of Ptolemy’s Almagest. Up until and into these centuries, the idea that Earth was still the center of the universe was the accepted theory, enforced of course by the church. It isn’t until extremely late in these years that these ideas begin to be challenged.

Astrology was a lot easier to deal with as far as the church was concerned. The signs of the zodiac were one thing that the church could embrace, and that was that they were of a static nature. There were no changes in the celestial sphere, and any changes that were noticed were considered to be some sort of an “omen.” That being said, and augmented by the church’s belief that many things were never-changing or things were planned out in advance, the concept of astrology and how the signs of the celestial sphere and their locations affected the lives of people did not pose much of a conflict. Astronomy on the other hand, particularly Aristotelian ideas, conflicted with the church, and thus the reconciliation between Aristotle and Christianity needed to take place first, whereas this was not so much a problem with the concept of astrology.

Astrology was so powerful a belief in medieval times that it had influence in medicine, as noted in the meta-religion reference. This demonstrates how much of a leap astrology had over astronomy. Outside of the geocentric belief system, astronomy was not all that a big deal, since all that was necessary to be understood was explained in scripture. Also, the stress on astronomy in university education was minimal at best, contrary to how astrology was required for physicians. Astronomy at this time could not be seen as an important study due to the fact that the geocentric theory seemed to explain everything, and astrology went into the greater detail of the static nature of the heavens that may or may not have been already covered in detail by the Bible. Simply put, in the medieval ages, majority of astronomical advances and scientific thought on astronomy comes from Arabic civilizations, with few Western scholars starting to critically attack the subject on their own. This comes centuries later with Copernicus and Galileo, and they (particularly Galileo) show why astronomy is such a touchy subject in comparison to astrology.

Sources:
http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761572208&pn=2
http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm

Astronomy and astrology

Astronomy is the observation or measurement of the heavens or celestial bodies and astrology is the study of celestial bodies to determine their meaning or purpose to society. In the 13th and 14th century, these two sciences were studied. Their common ground was that they both studied the skys, however they were not studying them for the same reason. The Mayan’s let astronomy play a huge part in their culture. They had pyramids and buildings that were specifically designed to line up with specific astronomical events. For example the sun would line up to specific cracks in the building for different holidays or events. They also used astrology to explain the significance of an eclipse. The Dresden Codex which is a textbook written back in the 13th century, contains charts and graphs to predict when eclipse and different events would occur. Astrology would help predict when good times may come relative to a good growing season or good fortune. Astrology conflicted a lot with religion because it tried to explain things that people believed the gods were doing before. Because of this reason, it was hard for astrology to be widely accepted and thus took awhile to grow. Astronomy and astrology are very similar thought because the study of one led to the study of the other.

http://www.planetquest.org/learn/dresden.html
http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/IGC/knowledge.htm

final post

These two ideas, astronomy and astrology, go hand in hand. Astrology cant really exist without astronomy. In the 13th and 14th centuries these two concepts were used quite frequently. There were rulers that relied on astrology to tell them when to fight wars along with other information. In fact one astrologer in this time period became famous for instructing princes when to go into battle. This was Bonatti who worked under Guido de Montefeltro for a period of time; he would ring the bell to send the knights into battle.
This could, of course, only happen because astronomy paved the way. The main way that these two ideas go together is the study of the cosmos. One is mainly the study of them and the other stated that future knowledge can be found in them. These Ideas were widely believed in this time and that is why people could make a living as a astrologer in that day and age. Astrologers could tell you many things such as what rank you would end up in an army or in the church, or the simple fact of whether a child to be born was going to be a boy or a girl. These were a few of the simple things that were asked of astrologers. Another aspect of astronomy and astrology in this time period was the fact that many highly esteemed people were interested in it such as, St. Thomas, or Roger Bacon. These are just two out of many big names that were at-least interested in the subject. Basically in this time period the ideas were very prevalent in many places in Europe.

Astronomy and Astrology in the 13th and 14th centuries

Astronomy and astrology seemed to grow in concert during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in Europe, with great contributions from the Islamic world and from newly translated Greek and Arabic texts. The two grew together, with astrologers demanding accurate astronomical figures to work with, and also with astrology becoming more strongly connected with medicinal studies, leading to the rise of astronomical research. Much of the research had already been performed and written by scholars in the Islamic world, and the astronomical data used by astrologers in this time was a combination of research done by period astronomers and of translated texts from the Arabic nations.
Fortunately, most of the important astronomical texts had been translated to Latin by the end of the twelfth, and the most frequently used texts were written by teachers, for use by their students. Books such as Sacrobosco's The Sphere, which conveyed only the most elementary topics of astronomy, and Theorica Planetarum, which showed the basic Ptolemaic theory for each of the heavenly bodies, were written to educate new students of astronomy in both the basics and in more complex ideas. One subject that many of these books touched upon was the differences between the Ptolemaic theories and the Aristotelian philosophies, an argument that was more often than not won by Ptolemy due to the lack of quantitative measure backing Aristotle's views. Ptolemy also had written on the subject of astrology in his work Tetrabiblios, in which he acknowledged the existence of celestial forces and the validity of astrological predictions. He stated that a person who understands the influences and has a mastery of of celestial motions and configurations should be able to predict a wide variety of natural phenomena. Thus a person who studied both astronomy and astrology would be able to predict many things on the terrestrial sphere.
Despite these facts, many astrologers were called “charlatans” by the Christian church during the thirteenth and fourteenth century due astrology's conflict with the church's beliefs against determinism. The church even went so far as to issue a condemnation on the study of astrological determinism in 1277. Astronomy, as a purer science that had no conflicting arguments, suffered no such ill will. However, both the study of the stars, and the study of how the movement of the stars effected other things continued on together.

Most of the medieval astronomy had its origins based from the Islamic world and its philosophers and writings. The islamic writings had most of its origin in Greco- Roman ideas. By the 13th and 14th century, medieval scientists had to fuse the Islamic teaching, Aristotle ideas, and Christian religion to satisfy the need to describe the workings of the universe. The Ptelomy model was used for most of the very early medieval times, but then with newer ideas came a more clear picture of what astronomers thought to be the universe.

The idea that the Christian God needed to be incorporated into Aristotle's ideas was the toughest part of the medieval astronomers. With every incorporation of Aristotle there needed to be some basis for christianity to either back it up or alter it to fit into the christian ideals.

From the 13th century to the 14th century, more and more debates were over what the actual universe looked like and such. There were more advances to putting christianity and aristotle ideas together. Mathematical calculations of the earth and the celestial worlds were also advancing. There would be constant revisions and alterations of the celestial and terrestial worlds that would lead to the time of copernicus and eventually newton.

Medieval Astronomy and Astrology

In the medieval period in the the 13th and 14th century astronomy and astrology reigned king in the science world. However, though they were alike in this aspect, many things differed.

Astronomy was, and basically still is, the science of observing and mapping stars and their movements. This includes the identification of celestial bodies that occur in the universe, for instance other galaxies and planets with orbiting moons. At this point, Astrology has an intersection with astronomy. Astrology revolves around the identification and placement (or alignment) of celestial bodies, and how information pertaining to a person, or being, can be drawn from this. And at this point, astrology strays from astronomy. Astronomy is a science, and as a science it is not based on a system of beliefs, as astrology is.

The knowledge of astronomy at the time was much different than modern thought, for instance the biggest one I feel is that they still believed in a Geocentric universe, in which the universe revolves around earth. This was an intense issue for the Catholic Church which taught geocentric and also held belief in it. For the 2 centuries the church fought with people forming new theories of universal movement. While this is quite prominent, there were many things that were discovered around the world in astronomy, for instance in 1054 AD the Chinese noted the appearance of the Crab Nebula.

As for problems with astrology, it became a basis in medieval life. It was a requirement for a medical education to have knowledge in astronomy, it was revered, until the scientific revolution. However, it had some problems, for instance some considered it to be heresy. Others who had more scientific beliefs also shunned the subject, claiming it be unsound.

Sites:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy
http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm

Astrology and Astronomy in the 13th and 14th Centuries

During the 13^th and 14^th century astronomy was changing into the science as we know it today. Astronomers were starting to use better tools to map the sky and had a better knowledge of what was happening up there. Astrology was starting to separate from Astronomy at this time but all and all they were still really close since the astrologers needed the information that the astronomers had to show the divine connection between the earth and the heavens.

Astronomy was spreading in the universities and because of this textbooks were written by the teachers, especially in Paris. For example Johannes de Scrobosco write a text book entitled The Shere which was used as a text until the 17 century. This text book was used as an introductory text that was focused for people who wanted to study time keeping and calendar making. The book contained information on spherical astronomy and planetary motions, also it was stated that the sun moved 1 degree a day. Also it explained the retrograde motions of the planets by using an epicycle on deferent model and how eclipses were caused by shadows cast by the earth and the moon. Another textbook that was used but was intended for more advanced students was Therotica Plaanetarum and was a standard text for astronomical theory. This book taught the Ptolemaic model for the planets with geometric illustrations and models. It refined the amount the sun traveled in a day, 59.8 degrees, and again it moved in a uniform east to west motion in its eccentric deferent circle. Also it described the motion of Mars, Jupiter, Saturn as the planet moving uniformly from west to east in its epicycle and center of the epicycle moves from west to east around the deferent. This motion was uniform around a point know as the equant and the center of the deferent was halfway between the center of the earth and the equant. This was what text books of the age covered and was as expected to be known by astronomers. The advanced knowledge was known by very few people while the more basic concepts were know by almost everyone in the in university. Mathematical astronomy was still rarely studied at this time but those who studied it made the field become more sophisticated.

Also at this time a huge issue that was present was the validly of Ptolemy’s model since the introduction of Aristotelian cosmology. The biggest problem was reconciliation the eccentric and epicycle motions of Ptolemy and the concentric spheres of Aristotle. But through observational data of the time astronomers had to keep Ptolemaic model since it agreed with the data that was being gathered.

Astronomers were using more accurate instruments to measure the stars and the motions of the planets. For example the use of a new quadrant and the perfection of the astrolabe both used to measure the altitudes of the stars and planets. Also tables were being created of these observations and also from theory. Alfonsine made tables that were the standard for mathematical astronomy.

Astrology was starting split from astronomy and becoming more of a natural philosophy then a science but it still had a scholarly side to it. Astronomy supported astrology in the claim that the he heavens and the earth were connected since we get light and heat from the heavens, seasons from the solar motion around the ecliptic, and tides from the motion of the moon and the poles of the celestial sphere had a magnetic influence on certain materials. Astrologers dealt with trying to explain phenomena that happened on earth through things that happened in the sky. William of Conches of the mid 12^th century was one of the first to start separating the two by stating that, “The astrologers treat phenomena as they appear to be, whether accurately or no,” and “Astronomers deal with things as they are, whether they seem to be so or not” (Astrology). So in this time astronomy was supporting astrology very nicely but the rift in the two is coming from the use of the positions of the planets and stars for the forecasting of events and horoscopes.

Resources:

Lindberg, David C. The Beginnings of Western Science. Chicago,IL: The University of

Chicago P, 1992.

Astrology in Medieval Europe.

http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm

Astrology and Astronomy in the 13th and 14th

During most of the 13^th century much of the advancements in the fields of astronomy and astrology were from the Arabic part of the world and as time went on into the 14^th century the European society began to take notice and make their own advances. Astrology was an attractive attraction in the 13^th and 14^th centuries because it offered an answer and could be applied to almost every part of human life. This Medieval Astrology was used as a form of prediction and was associated with wisdom and connection with a divine power, kind of like the prime mover. Astrologers during this time believed the cosmos is governed by a set of laws and operated with mathematical precision. Astrology during this time had to do a lot with the Zodiac and a sort of magic. In the 13^th century Arabic translations of Ptolemy’s Almagest made there way into Europe, which sparked interested in astronomy in the European minds. Astronomy during this time stems from star catalogues from earlier centuries by the Arabs. Astronomy dealt with the study of the cosmos, the stars and other planets of the night skies. The observations made from study of the skies was put down into planetary tables, a basic planetary map of our solar system was made. For you to understand astrology you would have to study astronomy. But they did not fit together. Astronomy was a real science while astrology dealt with more spiritual. During both centuries both the Arabic countries and Europe looked to translate as much of the ancient text of Greek philosophers. In the 1200’s we see the emergence of many universities in Europe and the complete works of Aristotle were available in Western Europe in a language that every scholar could read and were gaining much acceptance by these universities. One of the big issues of the day was the churches acceptance of Aristotle. The church had a very long list of problems that dealt with Aristotle’s ideas: his claim that the cosmos was eternal, his conception of determinism, his ideas on the prime mover, and the nature of the soul. Aristotle believed that the world was operated by a prime mover and this prime mover affected everything. Astrology and Astronomy slowly gained more acceptance across Europe and both have become important in daily lives.

References

http://www.medievalastrology.co.za/background_info.htm

http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in _medieval_europe.htm

http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/phys/alshukri/PHYS215/Islamic%20astronomy.htm

Astrology vs Astronomy

In the 13th and 14th century, Europe was still a time of the Dark Ages so there was a minimal amount of science being learned. Most of the science being taught revolved around Astronomy and Astrology

Astronomy was the science in which scholars looked to the stars to determine time and the origins of the universe. Astronomy actually started back with the Greeks. Many Greek writings were translated into Arabic before being sent to Europe and falling into the hands of Christianity. The Church then finally translated the works into Latin. Many works, such as Ptolemy’s Almagest, were passed to scholars and eventually many scholars in Europe were able to create their own tables.

Astrology was considered the highest area of the science astronomy until its decline in the 17^th century. Because astrology was a new science, many people believed it to be fortune telling, and therefore unreliable. In actuality astrology was considered to be the direct connection with the “higher power.” It is also the knowledge that the movement of the stars directly influenced the actions of the earth, such as weather, health of a town, etc. Many academic individuals, such as doctors and physicians, carried around star charts to reference to while treating and providing a diagnosis to patients. One picture, the zodiac man, was used to provide patients a visual tool to help them understand how the stars influenced each part of their body. The picture can be viewed here: http://www.bl.uk/learning/artimages/bodies/astrology/astrologyhome.html

Astrology and astronomy can be connected in the fact that astrologers used the knowledge gained in astronomy to look at the stars to determine the location and areas of the stars. However, the two differed completely in what they studied and what they believe. Astrology took a religious viewpoint on the science, and looked at the cosmos to determine how the stars affected life on earth. Astronomy looked beyond Earth to find out the beginning. Astronomers wanted to find out how stars, planets and the Universe started. It did not take the Church’s idea of God starting the universe, which caused much rivalry between Astronomy and the Church in the future.

Astronomy and Astrology in the 13th and 14th Century

Astrology is the study of the positions and aspects of celestial bodies in the belief that they have an influence on the course of natural earthly occurrences and human affairs the other hand astronomy is the scientific study of matter in outer space, especially the positions, dimensions, distribution, motion, composition, energy, and evolution of celestial bodies and phenomena. Because of the consideration and belief that the earth was the center of the universe astronomers and astrologer began to be fascinated in the heavens. They both observed the moon's and planetary positions. There was a point in time where astronomy and astrology was considered the same thing. It was said that you needed to know a little bit of both in order to understand the cosmos. Both astronomy and astrology took important roles in the 13th and 14th century. It was being translated once again into Latin from Arabic. Astrology was an everyday use, it helped people during this time to make decisions depending on their zodiac sign. Astronomy on the hand helped farmers with their crops and helped the people know the seasons.

Astronomy and astrology have both developed a lot since the 13th and 14th century. Astronomy is constantly every year evolving and helping astrologers understand better the universe. Till this day they are both being used and still considered to many very important as part of their everyday lives.

Medieval Astronomy and Astrology in the 13th & 14th Centuries

The major problem that Medieval philosophers and scientists had with advancing astronomical and astrological knowledge centered around fitting the ideas of ancient Grecco-Roman and Islamic philosophers into the Christian Church’s authority over the educational institutions.

During the thirteenth century the educated people in Europe studied cosmology that was merged with Aristotelian beliefs. However, in order to fit Aristotle into biblical teachings, much debate surrounded his ideas of the heavens and the terrestrial sphere.

It is generally agreed that nothing existed outside of the cosmos and that inside of the cosmos seven concentric planetary spheres existed: moon, Mercury, Venus, sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Aristotle made no distinction between the heavens and the firmament, which was a problem pertaining to Christian biblical teaching. Later medieval cosmologists tried to reconcile the differences between cosmology and planetary astronomy because they began to draw epicycles related to Ptolemaic astronomical views. There was now a debated over how to combine this Ptolemaic astronomy with Aristotelian cosmology.

As astronomical models developed there came the basic idea that the astronomer was just to create mathematical models that would create predictions for astronomical phenomena. There were no physical limitations on these mathematical models, indeed if an astronomer were to put limitations on their model they were violating boundaries of conceptual study. Even with astronomical instruments and tables, astronomy was still considered to be mathematical theory with no relevance to the physical astrology of the cosmos.

Astrology in the Middle Ages was the study of physical influence upon the cosmos. This is a respectable study in natural philosophy. Influenced by observations there was an obvious connection between the heavens and the terrestrial sphere. The arguments of the seasons being connected with solar motion and the tides with lunar motion as well as the magnetic pull of the poles in the celestial sphere were all supported by traditional religious beliefs as well. Finally there was a merging of mathematical astronomy with physical conditions to astrology.

Astronomy and Astrology of 13/14th Cent.

It seems that astronomy and astrology could be worlds apart, yet each remain closely linked through medieval history. One could not be without the other. Both were linked to a common problem in the medieval world. The need to define the cosmos created several debates in the medieval scholar's world. During this time scholars heatedly debated how to combine the models derived by Aristotlelian cosmology with those of Ptolemy. This was especially crucial as astronomists felt that quantitative measurement could not be sacrificed for the model of Ptolemy.
The quantitative mathematical structure of astronomy links itself to astrology. Astrology was not always believed to be the charlatan art of prediction. Many philosphers would not dare argue against the tie that the heavens had to it's terrestrial counterpart. The observations made including heat, light, solar motion and it's connection to the seasons only reinforced these beliefs as they too also had religious connotations. One science is dependent on the other. The quantitative measure of astronomy is necessary to record the data for keeping of calendar events. The predictions from the science of astronomy gave foundation to the predictive nature of astrology. Both were also heavily influenced by the works of Aristotle.
The two sciences also differed. Astronomy was not a required subject within the universities. Advanced knowledge was rare. What is interesting, however, is that is became one the most sophisticated learned sciences even as rare as it was practiced. Astrology, on the other hand, was required for physicians to learn. It became a mainstream science within the medieval world.

Heather Novak

Astronomy vs. Astrology

Astronomy and astrology were discovered in the 13th and 14th century’s and used very widely. Astronomy is the study of the celestial bodies outside the realm of Earth. It is the study of the stars, the other planets, and of space. Astrology is the study of using the celestial bodies to explain and give us information in understanding and interpreting things about ourselves, like our personalities. These two are complementary of each other, but they also differ from each other.
The difference of the two is pretty much stated in the definitions. Astronomy deals with the scientific study of the celestial bodies, to know what is going on outside of Earth. Astrology focuses on the alignment of the heavenly bodies in respect to the human life.
The similarity between the two is that during the 13th and 14th century astronomy and astrology were seen as the same thing. They would say if you studied astrology then you also studies astronomy and vice versa. The differences were not seen until the 18th century. Astronomy and astrology were also seen as the aiding in illnesses. People would look to the heavens for answers.
In conclusion, astronomy and astrology in the 13th and 14th century had differences, but were also similar in each other.

Medieval Astronomy and Astrology

Medieval astronomers and astrologers made detailed observations of the sky and the celestial bodies above them. However, the ideology and theories that evolved from these observations often differed drastically from each other. Astrology in the 13th and 14th century was commonly referred to as predictive astrology. This type of astrology stems from the insights and developments of Neoplatonic philosophy and the Hermatic tradition. The Hermatic tradition is heavily seeded in the spiritual world and was named after Hermes Trismigestus who was a Greek moniker. This tradition is connected with alchemy and magical or mystical orders.

Medieval astrology took a geocentric view of the universe and was widely accepted as a branch of science. Furthermore, the average medieval Christian saw astrology as a manifestation of divine power. This divine power was rooted in the motions of the planets and was embraced by prominent members of the theological community. Thomas Aquinas saw that the moon could influence the tides on earth, so there was no reason why the motions of the planets could not influence the everyday lives of people. Medieval astrology can be broken down into the two fields of divination and medical applications. Divinations was commonly identified as “magic” and associated with sorcerers and the devil. Thomas Aquinas himself did not support the use of astrological knowledge for the general prediction of the future (although divination would quickly be accepted in the form of the Zodiac). On the other hand, a majority of medieval physicians incorporated astrology into their medical practices. Any painful symptoms (covering a wide range of illnesses) had a clear religious element. Taking ill was often connected with a punishment for sin or a sign that the Creator demanded some form of virtue. Astrology was used to discern the influence of the Creator and direct the actions of the followers in his service. The following image shows how each part of the Zodiac (described further in the following paragraph) was directly related to the parts of the body. These relations allowed physicians to make strong connections between celestial bodies and specific health problems.

Image: Zodiac and Organs

The medieval Zodiac (with a detailed illustration visible in the following image link) carried with it different meanings than those associated with modern astrology. The Zodiac was broken down into 12 different houses and each house was overseen by a ruler. For example, Aries ruled over the first house while Taurus ruled over the second. These rulers were responsible for certain elements in the life of a common medieval peasant. For example, Gemini influenced communication while Cancer looked over the home/house. The following image is decorated with images of angels and other symbols of divinity. This clearly reflects the religious roots of astrology and for the common God-fearing Christian peasant, just how large of a role it played in everyday life.

Image: Medieval Zodiac

Astronomical advances in the middle ages began slowly. Arabians made some very detailed observations in the 9th and the 10th century. These observations were thorough enough to develop basic planetary tables. However, despite the details of these observations, there were few groundbreaking developments in terms of astronomical theories. Western Europe began to take notice of astronomical thought when copies of Ptolemy’s Almagest began to circulate amongst scholars and philosophers. Initially, some short commentaries were produced from the information contained in Ptolemy’s work. Following the tradition of the Arabian astronomers of centuries early, Europeans were also able to assemble some basic tables of planetary motion.

Astronomy was valued during the Middle Ages for a very different reason than astrology. First, astronomy was an application of real science. While astrology was deeply rooted in spiritual and divine issues, astronomy had a very practical foundation. People wanted to know when to celebrate certain holidays (specifically, the exact date of Easter) and the best time to plants crops for maximum yields at harvest time. Early astronomy took a heliocentric view of the universe (as opposed to the geocentric or earth centered view of early astronomy). There were four main areas of concern for the medieval astronomer. Solar theory focused on the most important of the celestial objects, the sun. Lunar theory examined the second most important celestial object, the moon. Celestial theory tried to explain the movement of the stars and planetary theory looked at the motions of the planets (including such advanced concepts as retrograde motion). Astronomers made use of models based on spherical motion to explain their celestial observations. Not only do spherical models work well some simple celestial observations (their predications are valid for several decades in some cases without correction) but the sphere was also considered to be the perfect shape within Aristotelian philosophy. It made sense to the astronomers of the time that God would have designed his universe around the perfect shape. The modeling of the universe with spherical models allowed for the development of tools such as the astrolabe, which projected the celestial sphere onto a plane. The following link connects to an image of an astrolabe. Although it is difficult to identify the exact sphere projected on the plane, some simple astronomical characteristics are visible. This particular astrolabe is known as the Planisphaeric Astrolabe, is made of brass and required precise engineering to properly lay out the arcs, circles and star positions on the planes.

Image: Astrolabe

There is a clear contrast between the practical applications of astronomy and the religious connections of astrology. Astronomy offered medieval people one of their first chances to genuinely understand the world around them without the inclusion of divine prophecy or spiritual influence. However, despite the important advances made by medieval astronomers, their work did not replace astrological beliefs in a single day, year or even century. The connections of astrology to divination, health and everyday life ensured that people would continue to embrace its ideology throughout the middle ages and into the modern era. However, the connection between astrology and actual science began to decay with the advent of astronomy and continued steadily from that point onwards.

References:
http://www.medievalastrology.co.za/background_info.htm
http://www.gloriana.nu/astrology.html
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572208_2/Astronomy_History_of.html
http://www.humboldt.edu/~rap1/EarlySciInstSite/Workshops/PracMedAstro_2.htm

Astrology + Astronomy = Friends

Astronomy and Astrology ran parallel with each other until throughout the 13th and 14th centuries. Astrology is the belief that heavenly bodies, planets and stars, have an effect on a persons daily life. Astronomy is the study of the planets and stars and is actual science. I found it funny that the church came to accept astrology as a reputable science and didn't ban it or burn anyone and everyone that practiced it. I thought this was interesting because Astrology by definition, is to foretell the future which takes free will out of the equation and as we know people were burned at the stake for not believing in free will. Even Thomas Aquinas believed that astrologers were "able to foretell the truth..Especially when they undertake in general predictions." He thought this because he said men were "governed by their passions... In these the influence of stars is clearly felt". Thomas Aquinas recognized that the moon could influence the tides on earth and it wasn't hard to believe that it also influenced man. He did not believe that the knowledge obtained from astrology should be used to predict the future. Most would believe that the church would not stand for this because it is "magic" but the reason why there is no conflict here is because during medieval times magic was thought to be communication with spirits.

When earth was shown not to be the center of the universe, 17th century, from the likes of Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler astrology and it's influence began to lose it's influence and was beginning to be thought of as unscientific. Astrology and Astronomy are of course deeply intertwined and were hardly discernible from one another during this period however, as time wore on and physics came into play people began to see that astrology had no place next to astronomy.

http://www.meta-religion.com/Esoterism/Astrology/astrology_in_medieval_europe.htm
http://www.gloriana.nu/astrology.html
http://members.tripod.com/~navagraha/antiquityastrology.html

Astronomy vs Astrology

In the 13th and 14th centuries in Europe, astronomy and astrology played a major role in everyday life. These two disciplines focused on planetary alignments and the state of the cosmos. Although they are similar in that respect and this causes them to complement one another, they diverged drastically in many areas.
Astrology is based primarily on theory that came about during observations of the cosmos. At this point in history it was very difficult to pursue an interest in medicine and to become a doctor without mastering the realm of astrology first. This demonstrates how entwined that this practice was at this time. What was known about the stars was simplistic in nature. Obviously planetary movements were well documented over the centuries and tidal changes had been attributed to lunar cycles. Mathematical processes had given rough estimates to the size and distance of planets and stars. Astronomy was a very important discipline because of the mysteriousness of the cosmos and the connection to an omnipotent god.
The two studies differed drastically in the pursuit of truth. Astronomy focused on mathematics and empirical data to divulge predictions on the nature of the universe and it’s past. This caused a great rift in view points between astronomers and the church. The church used astrology to get information on god’s will and reasoning behind the events taking place. They did not question the information as did astronomers. Astrologists became very hard to deal with in this time in history because they would make predictions based on the star charts and planet positions. Predictions were made about everything and rifts between social classes grew further because god willed it like it is. Feudal systems became empowered by the predictions that were made to support them. “The primary goal of astronomy is to understand the physics of the universe. Astrologers use astronomical calculations for the positions of celestial bodies to observe correlations between celestial events with earthly events and human affairs. The role of astrology as an important motivation for astronomical research diminished as the works of Galileo and others solved the problems in celestial mechanics that were of interest to astrologers, and as belief in directly causal astrological influences or correlations became largely extinct among astronomers. The needs of modern navigation and physics became the prime motivating factors for subsequent astronomical research.” - http://astrologynotes.org/History
Devices were designed to connect astronomy to every day events. One such device was the astrolabe to make predictions for the events that were going to transpire on any given day, week, month, or year. More specifically “Astrolabes are used to show how the sky looks at a specific place at a given time. This is done by drawing the sky on the face of the astrolabe and marking it so positions in the sky are easy to find.” - http://www.astrolabes.org/ These could be utilized in navigation by taking into consideration the map that it presents as an aid. Positions of heavenly bodies could easily be found and used to travel a long path.
Astronomy and Astrology were once merged as one discipline but diverged over time with corruption and over use by the church and its official’s unwillingness to listen to reason.